When citing from this Internet published paper, reference the page numbers as they appear throughout the text. Page numbers have retained the positions found in the desk top published edition of this paper.

© MARCH 1998

RENEE M. NEWMAN

Copyright © 1998 by Renee M. Newman

All Rights Reserved

ii.

INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................4.

FORGET THE STONE AGE: EDUCATION 7,000 - 2,600 YEARS AGO.........................4.

ZENITH OF WISDOM & ACHIEVEMENT IN THE 6th CENTURY BC..........................6.

FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN EDUCATION IN A NUTSHELL...................................8.

GREEK EDUCATION 2,500 YEARS AGO......................................................................11.

WORLD EDUCATION 2,348-1,998 YEARS AGO..........................................................13.

EDUCATION FROM CHRIST'S BIRTH TO 500 AD.......................................................15.

EDUCATION HISTORY BETWEEN 1,498-1,376 YEARS AGO.....................................18.

ISLAM'S IMPACT ON THE EDUCATION CLIMATE....................................................19.

FROM THE VIKING ERA TO THE DARK AGES: 1,238-1,098 YEARS AGO...............23.

THE DARK AGES TO THE RENISSANCE: EDUCATION.............................................26.

EDUCATION IN THE RESISSANCE: 1,350-1,600 AD...................................................31.

A NEW WORLD...............................................................................................................34.

AMER. EDUCATION AT THE BRINK OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION...........39.

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFORMS AMERICAN EDUCATION.......................................43.

REDEFINING THE MEANS TO THE END.....................................................................48.

CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................52.

REFERENCES...................................................................................................................54.

iii.

Civilization cannot take place unless cross-generational learning is present. This learning of skills by children from their parents and other contacts, is the basis of education. Innate learning abilities eliminate the need for each human to figure out all of the secrets of life on their own, and be forced to reinvent improvements. By exposure to sensory experiences, we effortlessly acquire social, language, motor, and thinking skills. These are stored in memory cumulatively, and are the sources of intellectual and cultural growth. Throughout all of history, humans have recognized the advantages of education, and have implemented a plethora of creative strategies for teaching and learning to accomplish individual and group goals.

This paper will discuss the history of man’s progress, from first human cities to present America. The learning and teaching prerequisite of human developments will be briefly considered, but comprehensively. It is in this review of history, that living students can gain perspective on the state of education and make informed decisions about its future.

Early Mesopotamian cities carbon-date back 7,000 years. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets with pictographic signs almost 6,000 years ago. The Jewish calendar dates back 5,758 years. Sumerian cuneiform writing replaced pictographs about 5,500 years ago and metal coins replaced barley as money. Numbers were used in Egypt. Pepi's papyrus contains Instructions to a Son. The Egyptians introduced the modern 365-day calendar 4,770 years ago, and the Sumerian numerical system was based on multiples of 6 and 12. Egypt's first libraries date back 4.500 years. (Grunn 1991, 2-5)

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By 2,500 BC, script changed to the modern Semitic vertical, right to left style. The Egyptian 24 sign alphabet was used and the Semitic alphabet began 4,000 years ago. Babylon had advanced geometry and astronomy, and Crete had a decimal system. Law codes and medical and surgical practices were standardized. About 3,500 years ago, a Hittite library had tablets in 8 languages, and a Chinese dictionary had 40,000 characters. (Grunn 1991, 2-5)

About 3,000 years ago, Greek script added vowels to Semitic-Phoenician characters, and a Hebrew alphabet and Chinese script were developed. A Chinese math textbook included planimetry, proportions, root multiplication, geometry, equations, and a theory of motion. The Chaldeans had accurate cubic measures of time, weight, and length. (Grunn 1991, 6-7)

Between 2,900 and 2,800 years ago, date the earliest samples of Hebrew script and language. Homer's Greek epics, the Iliad and Odyssey appeared, as well as translations of Old Babylonian text on leather scrolls, into Aramaic and Greek - the link between clay and papyrus. (Grunn 1991, 6)

From 2,800-2,700 years ago, the earliest known, recorded music appeared in Sumerian cuneiform. Homer refered to advanced battlefield surgery. In India, medicine was disassociated with priesthood, and training used anatomical models. Babylonian and Chinese astronomy understood planetary movements and confirmed the new Chinese calendar. Romulus, first king of Rome, divided the year into 10 months. (Grunn 1991, 7-9)

By 2,700-2,600 years ago, Egyptian hieroglyphs were adapted to demotic script. Greek lyricists and authors preserved history. The Library at Nineveh contained educational texts, poetry, Sumerian to Semitic grammatical translation instructions, and documents recording sales, exchange and interest rates, leases, rentals and mortgages. The Indian Vedas was completed, a collection of religious, philosophical, and educational writings. Draco wrote the first laws of Athens. King Assurbanipal's library housed 22,000 clay tablets covering history, medicine, astronomy, and astrology. Assyria had water clocks. (Grunn 1991, 8-9)

From 2,600-2,500 years ago, came Aesop's Fables, the oldest extant Latin inscriptions, comic drama, and the first recordation of Old-Testament stories. Athens had public libraries. The 6th century BC reached a zenith of wisdom and achievement in Confucius, Buddha, Zoroaster, Lao-tse, Greek artists, poets, philosophers, scientists, and the Jewish prophets. Theodorus of Samos invented ore smelting and casting, the water level, lock and key, turning lathe and carpenter's square. (Grunn 1991, 10-11)

The Roman lunar calendar had 10, then 12 months. The Babylonian calendar consisted of 12 months, each alternating between 20 and 30 days. Thales of Miletus (d. 545 BC) discovered magnetism and postulated the oldest theory of occidental mathematics: triangles over the diameter of a circle are right angled. Greek anatomist, Alcmaeon, discerned veins from arteries and made the brain-sensory-organ connection. Babylon had many banking businesses. The civil rights of Greek women declined. (Grunn 1991, 10-11)

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Between 2,500 and 2,450 years ago, lived Pythagoras (581-497 BC) with his developments in math and Greek musical theory. Indian surgeon, Susrata, performed cataract operations. Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the Greek physician, is called the "father of medicine." Herodotus, the "father of history," lived between 485-424 BC. Democritus, was born in 460 BC. Hecataeus and Dionysius began writing the history of Greece. Socrates (470-399 BC) was a philosopher in Athens. Greek tragic drama played in theaters. In Palestine, Aramaic replaced Old Hebrew. (Grunn 1991, 10-11)

By 450-401 BC or 2,448-2,399 years ago, the Greek Periclean Age was in bloom with the philosophers Protagorus (d. 415 BC), and Plato, a pupil of Socrates (470-399 BC); the tragic poets, Sophocles and Euripides; comedy author, Aristophanes (450-387 BC); and historians, Thucydides (460-395 BC), Xanthus, and Herodotus. The Decemvirs codified Roman law into the Twelve Tables. The Torah came to guide the Jewish State. (Grunn 1991, 12-14)

Between 400-351 BC (2,398-2,349 years ago), the 5 books of Moses received their definite form as the Pentateuch. Plato crafted the Apologia in defense of Socrates in 396 BC. Eucleides, a student of Socrates, founded the Megarian School of Philosophy. Aristotle, Greek natural philosopher, lived from 384 to 322 BC. (Grunn 1991, 14-15)

Aristotle acquired knowledge by investigating and classifying physical things, in addition to mental reasoning. (Lamm 1996, 213} In the Middle-Ages, Christian Scholasticism consulted the Bible and the writings of early church fathers for answers to all questions. Investigation of the physical world and consultation of secular sources were forbidden. (Lamm 1996, 211)

The ancient civilizations of Greece, Rome, Byzantism, and Islam, all had learning centers. Universitas is Latin for corporation, and applied to teachers and students forming a legal body, that was awarded a charter by the pope or king, allowing freedom from local jurisdiction. Like the craft guilds they modeled, professors (the guild masters) awarded degrees (qualifying certificates) to students (apprentices,) who worked to become master teachers in the university (guild.) Graduation of students (guild apprentices) marked their "commencement" as certified teachers. (Lamm 1996, 214)

Abbeys (monasteries or convents), were self-sustaining institutions where women dedicated their lives and service to God. Here, unlike the rest of medieval women, they acquired an education. Manuscript copying and research preserved knowledge. Some Abbeys became prominent intellectual centers. Hrotsvit (930-990) wrote plays and histories. Hildegarde of Bingen (1098-1179) was a theologian, scientist, and composer. Herrad of Landsburg (1165-1195) and nuns wrote an encyclopedia of world knowledge and history. By the 13th century, universities began replacing abbeys and women's education became almost non-existent for the next 600 years. (Lamm 1996, 231)

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About 898 years ago, the University of Salerno specialized in Medicine. The University of Paris, chartered 798 years ago, offered instruction in all recognized fields of knowledge. Undergraduate study followed monastic school patterns and had no prescribed hours or credit units. (Lamm 1996, 214)

A required trivium, consisted of grammar, rhetoric, and logic integrated with philosophy, literature, and history. Upon passing comprehensive oral exams, a bachelor of arts (BA) degree was awarded. Then the quadrivium could be studied: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and Aristotle. Passage of quadrivium oral exams certified the graduate to teach the liberal arts as a Master of Arts, (MA). The teaching degrees of Doctor of Law, Medicine, and Theology, and the Ph.D., (added for advanced liberal arts study,) usually required 4 years of study beyond the MA. Doctorates were only awarded to those few who passed rigorous exams and defended their "thesis" or preposition successfully before a faculty board. (Lamm 1996, 214)

A dissident group of teachers and students split from Paris to form Oxford University during the 1200s. A group succeeding from Oxford founded Cambridge. An eminent law school at the University of Balogna became officially chartered 440 years ago. By the end of the Middle Ages Europe had 80 universities. These universities were operated by and for men, continuing the Graeco-Roman and Biblical traditions subordinating women. (Lamm 1996, 214)

A class of scholars emerged in the High Middle Ages, marked by the enthusiastic persuit of knowledge and experience. These new scholars were restless with the rigid omniscience and omnipotence of the church, feudalism and manorialism.

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Aristotle's works were rediscovered and Western culture made contact with more civilized and advanced Muslim and Byzantine cultures. (Lamm 1996, 214)

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1275) postulated a triangle of education. The base of the triangle consisted of the seven liberal arts; the midsection was dialectic (Plato's style of debate by question and answer, and Aristotle's reasoning with syllogisms). The top peak was equally split with the study of law (for discipline of our physical nature) and philosophy (for discipline of the spirit). (Lamm 1996, 215)

Aquinas believed that reality consisted of both form (an idea, like the spirit) and matter (its physical counterpart, like the body.) Everything is changing into something else, the lower forms into higher forms. All is moving toward the originator of motion, toward perfection, which is God. Acquiring worldly knowledge is an obligatory preparation for the final revelation of God, the true knowledge (Theology), in the afterlife. Thus, an expansion of science, personal development, and research both in and outside of universities, synthesized Thomism. (Lamm 1996, 215-216)

The Gothic cathedral personifies a "Bible in stone-" the aspirations of the spiritual and worldly. It served as church and state: civic center, school, court, concert hall, and meeting place. It nobly belonged equally to all that built and used it. (Lamm 1996, 216)

John Locke (1632-1704) greatly influenced education by asserting that the mind was a blank slate at birth. (This was contradictory to the common belief that the natural neonatal inclination was submission to authority.) The blank slate could be filled early in life with positive experiences resulting in good, honest, responsible citizens.

Beyond the family, a formal education delivered the experiences deemed requisite of healthy and independent personalities. Hence, our underpinning philosophy that ignorance is vice and an educated mind is its own reward. (Lamm 1996, 341)

The idea of formal education is over 2,500 years old. Academy is derived from Akademeia, the park in which Plato (427-347 BC) held his seminars. (Lamm 1996, 555) Socrates held that knowledge is virtue. (Lamm 1996, 215) Plato felt that harmonic music education helped build character and ethical behavior. Since personal ethics were a matter of state interest, all Athenian free citizens received mandatory music education until age 30, and sang in a chorus on social, religious and political occasions. (Lamm 1996, 85) Plato's Academy (until 529) admitted women (a distinct minority) and produced noted female scholars. (Lamm 1996, 214) Pythagoras believed that the harmony of the universe could only be understood through the study of the science of music (acoustics) and mathematics. (Lamm 1996, 119)

Equal time was devoted to performing and listening to music's ethical qualities-

both vocal and instrumental, plus poetry, and gymnastics. An imbalance of concentration produced softness or brutality. This idea of a mind-body harmony followed Pythagoras's observation that a string, stretched precisely to tension, produced an exact musical tone when plucked or bowed, whereas inadequate tension produced dull tones, and too much tension broke the string. (Lamm 1996, 119)

Greek parents saw to the education of their offspring, educating them in ethics, reading, writing, arithmetic, art, poetry, dance, music, and gymnastics.

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Talented students advanced to study oratory rhetoric and philosophy. Emphasis was on thinking, creativity, imagination, individualism, and the pursuit of excellence. Plato advised, more than 2,400 years ago, "Let early education be a sort of amusement; you will then be better able to find out the natural bent." Aristotle (384-322 BC) summed up the Greek view: "Educated men are as much superior to uneducated men as the living are to the dead." (Lamm 1996, 138)

Cato the Elder (234-149 BC), like all Romans, was responsible for the education of his children. He taught his son reading, Roman law, history, javelin, swimming, riding, and armed combat. The standard curriculum also included writing, arithmetic, and Greek and Roman literature. Ignorance was scorned. Cicero, the politician (106-43 BC) condemned the uneducated to poverty and tyranny. Epictetus said, "only the educated are free." (Lamm 1996, 138)

Plato also believed that the State should oversee the education of youth so they learned to take pleasure in the right things. With music to ennoble the soul, the soul could then build up the body through training in gymnastics combined with music, wrestling, and poetry recitation. (Lamm 1998, 86)

Plato (427-347BC) insisted that all citizens (of both sexes) participate in government, lest they be forced to "live under a government of worse men." An ideal state of affairs is achieved when each citizen ascribes to his nature. The state administered education to insure the optimization of individuals, and so that only the best, most beautiful, and morally uplifting of the arts were presented, thus inspiring souls to the highest moral standards. Also, the state facilitated class mobility by recognizing, and educating appropriately, individuals worthy of the highest responsibilities. Thus the state administered and maintained justice on a grand scale. (Lamm 1996, 86)

Those driven by appetite (iron class) were laborers, merchants, and craftsmen. People of spirit (silver class) were soldiers, holding no encumbering material possessions, but trained in gymnastics, and to make them sensitive and considerate, in music and poetry. The intellectually driven (gold class), were educated to become State stewards and guardians. In addition to music, poetry and physical training, the intellectuals also studied reasoning, mathematics, and philosophy. A series of trials and temptations tested their character strength and ability to choose beneficially for the State. Choice innovative scientific thinkers of impeccable integrity (from both sexes) were engaged, at age 50, to govern the city-state as philosopher-kings. (Lamm 1998, 86)

Between 350-301 BC (2,348-2,299 years ago), Plato's disciple, Heraclides, taught the heliocentric system in 350 BC. Also in that year the Parian Chronicle of Greek History was engraved in marble. Pamphilus, the Greek painter, taught that perfect art cannot exist without mathematics and geometry. Aristotle traveled to Assos, Lesbos, and Pelia in 348 BC, and taught Alexander the Great around 343 BC. Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 BC and founded the Peripatetic School of Philosophy. In 340 BC, he laid the foundations of musical theory. The earliest extant Greek papyrus, the Persae, of Timotheus of Miletus, dates to 325 BC. Ptolemy Soter, in 307 BC, began the Museum and Library of Alexandria, in the center of Greek learning. Zeno (b. 336 BC) founded the Stoic School of Philosophy. In 323 BC Euclid's Elements became the standard work on geometry. (Grunn 1991, 16-17)

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Some 2,298-2,224 years ago, (300-251 BC) the first Roman silver coin, the denarius, appeared in 268 BC. The Greek version of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, was written around 255 BC. Archimedes, the Greek mathematician, lived between 287-212 BC. (Grunn 1991, 18-19)

Between 2,248-2,199 years ago: Arcesilaus founded the 2nd Academy of Athens in 250 BC, and Asoka, the Indian emperor, erected 40' columns inscribed with his laws. In 250 BC, parchment was produced at Pergamum. Ennius, the poet, and "father of Latin literature," lived between 239 and 170 BC. Quintus Fabius Pictor (c. 225 BC) was the first Roman historian. Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) mapped out the course of the Nile, suggested the earth revolved around the sun, and made close estimates of the earth's circumference. In 221 BC all Chinese weights and measures were unified. (Grunn 1991, 18-19)

Between 2,198 and 2,149 years ago, the inscription was engraved on the Rosetta Stone (c. 200 BC), and the use of gears led to irrigation with ox-driven water wheels. Cato the Elder wrote De agricultura and in 198 BC, Pictor wrote Roman History in Greek. In 168 BC the temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, and then rededicated in 165 BC by Judas Maccabaeus after the expulsion of the Syrians. At that time, the Old Testament Book of Daniel was written. In 160 BC, Hipparchus of Nicaea invented trigonometry and made important astronomical discoveries. (Grunn 1991, 20-21)

Some 2,148-2099 years ago, the first Book of Maccabees appeared in Hebrew, and Palestine saw the rise of the Pharisees and Sadducees around 112 BC. In 140 BC, Crates of Mallus formed his great globe of the world. Heron, the mathematician, in 105 BC, founded the first College of Technology at Alexandria. (Grunn 1991, 22-23)

In 90 BC, Vitruvius, wrote De architectura on architecture. Between 2,098-2,049 years ago, the Roman poets, Virgil (70-19 BC) and Horace (65-8 BC), were born, and Livy wrote on Roman history (-59 to 17 AD). Alexander Polyhistor of Miletus wrote a history of the Jews in 82 BC, the time of the erection of the oldest extant amphitheater at Pompeii. In 63 BC, Marcus Tullius Tiro invented a system of shorthand. Cicero (55-54 BC) and Ceasar (51 BC) wrote historical accounts. (Grunn 1991, 22-23)

About 2,048-1,999 years ago, the Millearium aureum was erected in the Via Sacra. It listed the distance from Rome of the chief towns in the Empire. In 47 BC, the Library of Ptolemy I in Alexandria was destroyed by fire, and Ceasar wrote his De bello civili. In 46 BC, the Julian calendar was introduced, comprised of 365.25 days and a leap year. Jesus Christ was born at Bethlehem in 4 BC (after adjustment for the Julian calendar). (Grunn 1991, 24-25)

At the beginning of the first century since the birth of Christ, Ovid, the Roman poet (43 BC-18 AD) wrote Metamorphoses in 5 AD. Jesus was Baptized in 27 AD, and was crucified in 30 AD. The earliest Christian church was erected at Corinth c. 40. London was founded in 43. In 45, Paul set out on his missionary journeys. In 50, the Gauls taught Romans to use soap, some 1,948 years ago. (Grunn 1991, 24-25)

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In 58, Chinese emperor, Ming-Ti, introduced Buddhism, and St. Paul wrote his Letters to the Corinthians. Year 62 saw the first persecutions of Christians. A year later, St. Mark wrote his Gospel, and in 68, St. Linus became the 2nd pope. Flavius Josephus wrote A History of the Jewish War, in 68. The Gospels according to St. John and St. Matthew were written in 85. Pope Clement reigned from 88 to 97. The earliest known Sanskrit inscriptions in India, date to 150 AD. (Grunn 1991, 26-27)

The oldest Maya monuments date back to 164, some 1,831 years ago. In 170, Pausanias of Magnesia, wrote Periegesis, 10 volumes on Greece and its art history; and Ptolemy drew 26 maps of various countries. Pope Victor I (189-199), the last of the Greek philosophies, the Period of Neo-Platonism (ended by 200), and a Neo-Hebrew language, were born. The bishop of Rome gained his predominant position as pope c. 200. (Grunn 1991, 24-25)

Between 1,797 and 1,748 years ago, Origen (185-254) wrote the Hexapla, the Old Testament in 6 Hebrew and Greek texts, during the reign of Pope Urban I (222-230). Around 250, Christian persecution increased, with martyrs revered as saints. Two years after Rome celebrated its 1,000th anniversary; Diophantus of Alexandria produced the first Algebra book. (Grunn 1991, 26-27)

In 271, the first compass may have been used in China. Around 285, Pappus of Alexandria described 5 machines in use: the cogwheel, lever, wedge, pulley and screw. The last persecutions of Christians in Rome occurred from 303-311. In 313, Constantine, with the Edict of Milan, established toleration of Christianity. (Grunn 1991, 28-29)

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By 360, books begin to replace scrolls. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, introduced hymn singing in 386. The first Hallelujah hymns were sung in Christian churches in 390, a tradition just 1,608 years old. (Grunn 1991, 29)

Between 401 and 450, Pope Innocent I reigned (401-417), St. Augistine wrote The City of God in 411 after Alaric sacked Rome. Alchemy began c. 410 with the search for the Philosopher's Stone and the Elixor of Life. Constantinople University was founded in 425. St. Patrick began his mission to Ireland in 432, and Codex Theodosianus summarized Roman law in 439. Pope Leo headed the church from 440-461. In 450 the Roman Church adopted the Jewish pattern of alternating singing between clergy and congregation. (Grunn 1991, 30-31)

The Late Neo-Platonist leader, Proclus (410-485) became head of the Platonic Academy at Athens in 476, and the Hindu astronomer and mathematician, Aryabhata, wrote on the powers and roots of numbers. Pope Simplicius died in 483, and was succeeded by Felix III, whose excommunication of Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople, led to the first schism between the Eastern and Western churches in 484. Reconciliation did not come until 519. In 496, the Gelasian Missal contained instructions, prayers, and chants for the celebration of Mass. In 498, Eastern Roman Emperor, Zeno, destroyed the school of the Nestorians at Edessa and built the Church of St. Simeon. (Grunn 1991, 30-36)

Codex Bezae availed the New Testament in Greek and Latin in 500, the first plans were made for the Vatican Palace in Rome, and Johannes Stobaios of Macedonia issued an anthology of Greek literature. Also around 1,498 years ago, St. Romanos (called Melodos) wrote hymns for Christmas, Easter, and the Passion. In 502, the Syrian poet, Narsai of Mealletha, was head of the Nestorian school in Nisbis. (Grunn 1991, 30-32)

In 517, Aryabhata compiled a manual of astronomy. In 520, Priscian, great Latin grammarian, wrote Institutiones Grammaticae. Boethius introduced Greek musical letter notation to the West 1,477 years ago. Pope John I ruled from 523 to 526.

In 525, Dionysius Exiguous (500-560), the Roman theologian and mathematician, mistakenly dated the birth of Christ on Dec. 23, 753 BC in his Easter Tables. In the same year, Cosmas Indicopleustes, explorer and geographer, traveled up the Nile and wrote Topographia Christiane. (Grunn 1991, 37-38)

By 529, Justinian closed the 1,000 year-old School of Philosophy in Athens, in an effort to thwart paganism. Many professors went to Persia and Syria. St. Benedict (480-543) founded the Benedictine Order and Monastery of Monte Cassino. Justinian issued the Code of Civil Laws, The Codex Vestus. In 534, Codex Repeitae Praelectionis replaced it, and Johannes Philoponus Grammaticus refuted the teachings of the Neo-Platonists and Proclus. In 540, Cassiodorus founded the great Monastery of Vivarium where he wrote and directed literary activities. (Grunn 1991, 38-41)

In 542, St. Gildas (540-570) wrote De excido et conquestu Britanniae, an important source of early British history, and medically described the great plague. The next year, Justinian condemned the writings of Origen (185-254), the early Greek theologian. (Grunn 1991, 40-41) 18.

By 550, the crucifix became an ornament and Procopious described the Persian, Vandal, and Gothic wars in De bellis. In 560, St. Deniol founded the Abbey of Bangor in Whales. Mohammad, the founder of Islam, was born in 570. In 575, Alexander of Tralles (525-605) wrote De re medica. The Roman historian, statesman and monk, Cassiodorus, wrote Chronica, Institutiones divinarium et saecularium litterarum, and Ostographia 1,415 years ago. In 594, St. Gregory of Tours authored the Historiae Francorum. (Lamm 1991, 42-50)

When decimal reckoning was first used in India, Pope Gregory to Britain dispatched St. Augustine of Canterbury in 596. He founded a Benedictine monastery at Canterbury in 597, and saw its first English school in 598. By 600, books were being printed in China, and Pope Gregory desired peaceful conversion of the Jews. He introduced Biblical picture books for the illiterate, and composed a manual on clergy duties. Bishop Isadore of Seville (560-636) collected old Greek and Roman writings. In 602, Augustine established the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury. (Grunn 1991, 50-51)

Emperor Yomi, completed the Horyuji Temple and Hospital in Japan in 607. Mohammad had his holy vision on Mt. Hira in 610. Records of his earliest Chinese tea date to 615. In 619, the Saun-Chineseg (Ten Classics) scientific textbooks were published for Chinese examination applicants seeking public office. The Chinese had chamber orchestras (619) and produced porcelain (620). Year 622, is year 1 of the Moslem calendar. It marks the Hegira, Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina. This same year, Isidore of Seville wrote his encyclopedia on arts and sciences. (Grunn 1991, 52-55)

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In 625, Mohammed began to dictate the Koran; and Brahmagupta, the Indian mathematician, taught at Ujjain. In 628, Emperor Heraclius won back the Cross of Christ that was carried off by the Persians; and Mohammed captured Mecca and wrote letters explaining Moslem tenants to all the rulers of the world. Mohammed, born in 570, died in 632 and was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abu Bekr, the first Caliph of Medina. Mohammed's youngest daughter, Fatima, founder of the House of Fatimids, and mother of Hassan and Hussein, also died 1,366 years ago. (Grunn 1991, 56-57)

Abu Bekr lived from 573-634. Mohammed's advisor, Omar I, became Caliph until 644. He conquered Syria, Persia, Egypt, and Mesopotamia with Heraclius ("Holy War") and made Damascus the caliph capital in 635. The Arabs ruled until 1258, and Islam became the state religion. In 640, the Arabs discovered the famous library at Alexandria with 300,000 papyrus scrolls. They destroyed the book-copying industry at Alexandria and the Alexandrian school, the center of Western culture. (Grunn 1991, 58-59)

The Eastern Roman Empire was weakened. In 636, in the Frankish Empire, the French and German languages became distinct. In 642, Fredegar Scholasticus wrote Historia Francorum, and the Amr Mosque was built in Cairo after the founding of Fustat. In 643, building began on the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. In 650, Caliph Othman put the Koran into 114 chapters, influenced by Jewish and Christian theology. The Buddhist monk, Bhartrihari, wrote 100 proverbs about love, life and resignation. Amarasimka wrote amarakosha, an Indian dictionary. The Chinese use of lamp-black ink for rubbings led to the use of wooden blocks for printing. The first surgical developments in India dealt with the bladder, peristalsis, and plastic operations.

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Also, 1,348 years ago, the caliphs introduced the first organized news service. (Grunn 1991, 60-61)

In 664, the Synod of Whitby, England, adopted the Roman Catholic faith and Roman ritual. In York, St. Peter's Boys' Public School was founded. Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury, organized the Anglo-Roman Church in 669. Aldhelm, of 680, was the first Anglo-Saxon writer of verse and prose. Ravenna Cosmography, of 685, was a catalog of all known countries, towns and rivers. (Grunn 1991, 62-67)

The first Arab coins appeared in 695, just 2 years before the Arabs destroyed Carthage. The classical era neared its end in India. Bharavabhuti was a great Indian dramatist and poet in 700; and the Arab poetry of Omar ibn Abi Rabi'a flourished. Greek, instead of Latin, became the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Psalms were translated into Anglo-Saxon and Easter Eggs came into use. Water wheels powered mills throughout Europe, and The Great Mosque was built in Damascus 1,293 years ago. (Grunn 68-70)

In 712, the Arabs occupied Samarkand, made it an Islamic cultural center, and learned the art of papermaking. A Moslem state was established in Sind, India by Muhammad ibn Kasim. The same year, the first history of Japan was compiled, Kojiki, and in 720 a chronology of Japanese history appeared, titled Nikongi. The use of images in Byzantine churches was opposed by the official Iconoclast policy of Leo III and Constantine V in 720. The famous Arab chemist, Abu Masa Dshaffar, invented sulfuric acid, nitric acid, aqua regia, and nitrate of silver 1,278 years ago. (Grunn 1991, 71-73)

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In 725, there was a large Indian fort and irrigation works at Casa Grande in Arizona. In 726, Ine, the king of Wessex, employed a tax known as "Peter's Pence" to support a college at Rome. In 730, Venerable Bede wrote Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. Bede (672-735) was the English historian and theologian who introduced the counting of dates before the birth of Christ. In 744 a singing school was established at the Monastery of Fulda. (Grunn 1991, 74-77)

The year 750 marked time of darkness and misery before the reign of Charlegemagne. The Kamandaki was an Indian manual on the art of government. The Pueblo period in North America began, lasting until 900. Arab Spain was at its prime in medicine, math, optics, and chemistry. Pharmacology and medicine became separate sciences. The Hanlin Academy was founded for the encouragement of Chinese arts and sciences, and lasted into the 20th century. (Grunn 1991, 78-79)

By 751, Islam had 4 sects: Sunnites, Hafenites, Shafites, and Malikites. The Arabs captured Chinese paper makers at Samarkand and acquired knowledge of paper manufacture. The Chinese lost Asian domination to the Arabs. In 755, the Caliphate of Cordoba was founded by Abd-al-Rahman. A Tartar tribe in Armenia founded the Turkish Empire in 760; and the Arab numerals of Indian origin were known in Baghdad. The Latin Gospels were written in Irish, and known as The Book of Kells. In 763, Caliph al-Mansur moved the Islamic capital from Damascus to Baghdad. Pictorial book printing was known in Japan 1,233 years ago; and Ethelbert and Alcuin, great English historians, made York a center of learning. (Grunn 1991, 79-81)

In 772, Charlemagne subdued Saxony, converted it to Christianity, and imposed tithes for the support of clergy, churches, schools, and the poor. In 774, Euclid's Elements was translated into Arabic. In 781, the Nestorians, who had been in China since 645, developed Christian monasteries and missionary activities. The Wessobrunn Prayer was the earliest German ecclesiastical verse. In 782, Alcuin left the monastery at York to aid Charlemagne's revival of learning. Godescalc wrote Evangelistary, the Ada-school manuscript. The great Arab chemist, Jabir, began his chemical studies, distinct from alchemy. (Grunn 1991, 82-85)

The building of the Mosque of Cordoba began in 785. In 787, the 7th Council of Nicaea regulated image worship. In 788, Idrus established a Shiite kingdom in Morocco; and in 789, Constantine I became king of Scotland. In 790, Offa founded St. Alban's Abbey; and Alcuin was appointed principal of the Frankish court school. It was the Golden Period of Arabic Learning during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Schools for church music were established at Paris, Cologne, Soissons, and Metz, all under supervision of Rome's Schola Cantorum. The Viking era in Britain began in 792. (Grunn 1991, 84-86)

Cynewulf, an Anglo-Saxon poet, authored Elena, Juliana, Christ, and Fates of the Apostles in 795. In 796, the monastery school at Tours became a university headed by Alcuin. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne first Holy Roman Emperor of the Western Empire at Rome on December 25, 800. Harun al-Rashid sent an embassy to Charlemagne. At Charlemagne's scholastic institutions, miniscule handwriting developed.

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The Hildebrandsleid was an important Old High German poem. Charlemagne reformed the church and adopted the "Filioque." The city of Machu Picchu thrived in Peru, also 1,198 years ago. (Grunn 1991, 86-87)

In 810, the Persian scientist and mathematician, Muhammad ibn Musa al Chwarazmi, wrote a book on equations and coined the term "algebra." Caliph Mamun's reign from 813-833 is considered the Augustan Age of Arabian Science and Literature. The Synod of Mainz declared a public 4-day Christmas celebration in 813, and the School of Astronomy was founded at Baghdad. In 814, the Arabs took over the Indian numerals, including zero, and multiplied by 10. (Grunn 1991, 87-91)

In 822, Abd-al-Rahmam became Caliph of Cordoba until 852. In 825, Pavia became the center of literature and science. In 828, Ptolemy's Astronomical System was translated into Arabic as Almagest. In 829, the official chronology of French history was finished. Louis the Pious, in 830, destroyed the collection of German epics started by his father Charlemagne. Caliph Mamun founded the Academy of Translations in Baghdad. In 832, the richly illustrated Utrecht Psalter was written at Rheims. (Grunn 1991, 90-93)

The Danes founded Dublin and Limerick in 840. In 842, the Oaths of Strasbourg began the separation of the French and Latin languages. In 845, Abu Tammam wrote Hamasa, a collection of Arabian legends, proverbs, and heroic tales. The Vivian Bible was written in Tours. It is one of the oldest illustrated manuscripts. Erigena was appointed head of the palace school of Charles the Bald, and wrote De divina praedestinatione in 851. (Grunn 1991, 94-95)

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In 850, groups of Jews settled in Germany and formed their own Yiddish language. Photius (820-893) published extracts from ancient lost books in his Bibliotheca. The University of Salerno was founded, the Arabs perfected the Astrolabe (used to determine the position of planets); and the Arabian goatherd, Kaldi, discovered coffee. In 858, Erigena translated Dionysius the Areopagite into Latin. In 863, Cyril and Methodius, "Apostles to the Slavs," began work in Moravia and invented a Salvic alphabet, the Cyrillic. (Grunn 1991, 96-99)

In 870, calibrated candles measured time in England; and Erigena compiled an encyclopedia on nature. In 878, the Arab astronomer, Battani, began his observations. In 885, Ibn Khordadhbeh wrote The Book of the Roads and Countries. The earliest Hebrew manuscript of the Old Testament dates to 895. (Grunn 1991, 100-104)

In 900, the Mayas relinquished their settlements in the lowlands of Mexico and immigrated to the Yucatan peninsula. The famous Arabian tales began: A Thousand and One Nights. Rhases, the Arab physician, described the infectious diseases of plague, consumption, smallpox, and rabies. The medical school of Salerno was founded. Paper manufacturing commenced in Cairo, and castles became seats for nobility in Europe. (Grunn 1991, 104-105)

Pope Sergius III (904-911), with the disgrace of his mistress, ushered in the era of pornocracy, the period of dark corruption of the papacy. Ibn Doreid (837-933) wrote a Manual of Genealogy and Etymology, 1,094 years ago; and in 905, the official Kokinshu, was an imperial anthology of the preceding 150 years of Japanese poetry. As of 913, Popes only assumed names of their predecessors. (Grunn 1991, 106-108)

The dialogue of The Three Maries and the Angels was performed in churches on Easter morning in 925, beginning the tradition of Easter plays. In 930, Cordoba, Spain became the seat of Arab learning, science, commerce, and industry. In 935, the Arabs founded Algiers. By 942, in the caliph's empire, postal and news services had 1,000 stations in service. By 950, Europe entered the "Dark Ages." (Grunn 1991, 110-114)

In 961, Li Yu, Emperor of Nanking, founded the Academy of Painting, and in 962 the Hospice of St. Bernard at St. Bernard's Pass was founded in Switzerland. Al Sufi's Book of Fixed Stars mentioned nebula in 963. By 695, St. Dunstan enforced celibacy for English clerics. Cordoba University was founded in 968. The Arabs brought the present system of arithmetical notation into Europe in 975. In 978, a 1,000 volume Chinese encyclopedia was started. It was finished c. 984. In 982, Eric the Red established the first Viking colonies in Greenland. (Grunn 1991, 116-121)

Alfric the Grammarian wrote Homilies, in 991; and systematic musical notation was developed. Saints were first canonized in 993. The Feast of All Souls was first celebrated in 998. By 1,000, Tiahuanaco civilization spread throughout Peru, and the Mayan civilization climaxed in the Yucatan peninsula. Leif Ericson, son of Eric the Red, discovered Nova Scotia. Attempts were made to fly or float in air. There was a widespread fear of the End of the World and the Last Judgement. The Chinese perfected their invention of gunpowder, a combination of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate. (Grunn 1991, 122-125)

In 1009, Ibn Junis (b. 950), the Arab astronomer who authored the Hakimite Tables, died.

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The Handkerchief of St. Veronica was kept in a special altar in Rome in 1011. A year later, the first heretics were persecuted in Germany. In 1020, the Prince of Kiev, Jaroslav the Wise, codified Russian law, and built cities, schools and churches. In 1025, Takayoshi founded the Tosa School of Painting; and in 1026, Guido d' Arezzo introduced solemnization in music (do, re, mi, fa, sol, and la). (Grunn 1991, 126-131)

Petrocellus, wrote Practica in 1040, an important medical work of the school of Salerno. In 1045, the deposed Pope Benedict IX sold the papacy. Beruni, the Arab historian born in 973, died in1048; and Elias bar Shinaya, the Syrian historian, died in1049. Time values were given to musical notes in 1050; and important astronomic instruments arrived in Europe from Eastern countries. The cleavage between Roman and Eastern churches became permanent in 1054. Haley's Comet first appeared in 1066. The Norman invasion of 1066 led to a loss of prestige for the English language. Constantine the African (c. 1020-1087) brought Greek medicine to the Western world in 1071. Married priests were excommunicated in 1074. (Grunn 1991, 132-139)

The Toledan Table of Star Positions was issued in 1080; in 1090 the first water-driven mechanical clock was constructed in Peking. The first gondolas in Venice were referenced 904 years ago. The Crusades began in 1095. Nicholas Prevost of Tours wrote Antidotarum, in 1098, a collection of 2,650 medical prescriptions from Salerno. (Grunn 1991, 142-143)

Beginning in 1100, Polynesia was colonized from South America, and the decline of Islamic science and secular music began. Gothic architecture appeared, the St. Martial music school developed the polyphonic style, and Middle English superseded Old

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English. Nine years later, Anselm of Canterbury wrote an ontological proof of the existence of God. And in 1119, the University of Bologna was founded. (Grunn 1991, 146-147)

By 1120, Scholastic philosophy was fully developed. In 1121, the Synod of Soissons condemned Abelard's Trinity teachings. St. Bartholomew's London Hospital was founded in 1123, followed by French Troubadour music, the first Scottish coins; and Alexander Neckam's De utensilibus, the earliest account of a mariner's compass. (Grunn 1991, 148-149)

Antidotarium Niclai, a treatise on drugs, appeared in 1146; and Moscow was first mentioned in 1147. In 1150, the University of Paris was founded, the oldest Welsh manuscript is dated, a medical facility was established at Bologna University, and the Arabs manufactured paper in Spain. Twenty Salerno physicians founded the "Civitas Hippocratica"; fire and plague insurance was first offered; and the Chinese first used explosives in war in 1151. Mohammed al-Idrisi published Geography at Palerno in 1154. (Grunn 1991, 153-155)

Notre Dame, was built in Paris, between 1163 and1235. Oxford University was founded in 1167, and in 1174 the "Leaning Tower" Campanile of Pisa was built. In 1176, Walter Map organized Arthurian legends into their present form. In 1180, glass windows appeared in private English homes. In 1198, William of Newburgh wrote his Historia rerum Anglicarum. (Grunn 1991, 156-163)

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By 1200, Cambridge University was founded, Southern European Jews developed cabalistic philosophy, and Islam began to replace Indian religions. England was Early Gothic, engagement rings became fashionable, cymbals were introduced, and alcohol was used for medical purposes. (Grunn 1991, 162-163) In 1202, Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci introduced Arabic numerals in Europe with his Liber abaci. In 1204 Vincenza University and Amsterdam, Holland were founded. From 1206-1227, Genghis Khan was chief prince of the Mongols. In 1209, Francis of Assisi issued the first rules for the Franciscan brotherhood. In 1210, Gottfried von Strassburg wrote Tristan und Isolde, and the Children's Cursade began in 1212. King John sealed the Magna Carta in 1215, and Salamanca University was founded in 1217. The "sonnet" form developed in Italian poetry in 1221 and Vienna became a city. (Grunn 1991, 162-167)

In 1224, Naples University was founded, and Abdallah ur-Ruml wrote Mu'jam ul-Buldan, an Arab geographical encyclopedia. The 1229 Inquisition in Toulouse forbade Bible reading by all laymen, in the same year Toulouse University and Berlin (1230) were founded. (Grunn 1991, 168-169)

In 1235, the Arabs lost Cordoba to Castile, and in 1240 the border was fixed between England and Scotland. Guido Guinizelli established a school of poetry in Italy. The University College at Oxford was founded in 1249, followed by the establishment of 4 national colleges at Paris University, in 1250. German art was in the High Gothic period, Rufus wrote a veterinary manual, and the goose quill was used for writing. In 1251, Kublai Khan became governor of China, the Inquisition began to use instruments of torture; and in 1253, linen was first manufactured in England. (Grunn 1991, 172-173)

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Court chaplain, Robert de Sorbon, founded the Paris School of Theology in 1254, later called the Sorbonne. In 1258, the House of Commons was established; followed by the Balliol College, Oxford in 1263; and the Merton College, Oxford, in 1264. Roger Bacon wrote De computo naturali; and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) wrote Summa contra Gentiles in 1264. Bacon wrote Opus maius, in 1267 and 2 years later, the first toll roads were built in England. Marco Polo journeyed to China in 1271, and came into the service of Hublai Khan in 1275. William of Saliceto wrote Chirurgia, the earliest record of human dissection in 1275; and Moses de Leon, theologian, authored Zohar, the fundamental work on Jewish mysticism. (Grunn 1991, 174-177)

In 1277, Bacon was imprisoned for heresy. In 1278, Jews were hanged and the glass mirror was invented. Caernarvon Castle was erected in 1283, and the next year, the Pied Piper of Hamelin appeared. By 1286, Bar-Hebraus, the Syrian lexicographer, died. In 1289, block printing was practiced in Ravenna, and Montpellier University was founded. Dante wrote La Vita Nuova; spectacles were invented; and Lisbon University was founded in 1290. In 1295, Marco Polo returned to Italy and in 1298, began to dictate his memoirs in a Genoese jail. (Grunn 1991, 178-181)

By 1300, urine analysis was used in medical diagnosis; and in 1303, Rome University was founded. Edward I standardized the yard and acre in 1305. Dante composed his Divina Commedia in 1307. Orleans University was founded in 1309. The Aztecs established Mexico City in 1327, followed by the invention of the sawmill in 1328. Records of 1332 show Parliament divided into 2 houses. (Grunn 1991, 182-189)

In 1337, William Meerlee of Oxford attempted the first scientific weather forecasts; and Pisa University was founded in 1338; followed by Grenoble University in 1339; Queen's College at Oxford; and the birth of Geoffrey Chaucer in 1340. Petrarch was crowned poet on the Capitol, Rome in 1341. (Grunn 1991, 182-189)

The Renaissance followed the 1,000-year "Middle Age" between the fall of Rome in 476 and the revival of Greco-Roman culture. Mediaeval Christendom's eternal life as the reason for living, was replaced by Humanism's belief that the individual and life had dignity and worth apart from God. Glorification of the past was coupled with Europe's creativity, growing cities, burgeoning industries, expanding capitalism, vigorous trade, and expanding craft guilds. Petrarch started a cultural movement. He devoted his life to acquiring the "golden wisdom" of the ancients. His goal was to see love and reason achieve earthly fulfillment. Since there was no Latin word for rebirth, Giorgio Vasari (1511-74), in 1550, invented "rinascita" (renaissance) in his Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Architects, Painters, and Sculptors from Cimabue to our own Times. (Lamm 1996, 262-263)

Prague University was founded in 1348; as well as Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Jews were persecuted in Germany and the Black Death killed a third of the population of England. Petrarch wrote his autobiography, Epistle to Posterity, and the fatalities from the Black Death totaled 75 million between 1347-1351. The Arab geographer, Ibn Battuta, explored the Sahara desert; and Corpus Christi College was founded at Oxford in 1352. Strasbourg Cathedral had a mechanical clock in 1354.

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Guy de Chauliac wrote Chirurgia magna on surgery in the Middle Ages in 1363; and a year later, the Aztecs of Mexico built their capitol, Tenochtitlan. In 1365, Vienna University was founded and a year later, Petrarch wrote Canzoniere. (Grunn 1991, 190-193)

In 1369, Chaucer wrote The Book of the Duchesse; and tonnage and poundage were imposed on merchants in England in 1373. Robin Hood appeared in popular English literature in 1375, and playing cards replaced dice in Germany in 1377. Chaucer wrote, House of Fame in 1381, and The Parliament of Foules in 1384. Heidelberg University was founded in 1386 and Chaucer wrote Canterbury Tales in 1387. Cologne University began in 1388 and by 1400, the Early Renaissance period began. (Grunn 1991, 194-199)

The Yung Lo Ta Tien, (a 22,937 volume encyclopedia) was compiled in 1403. Bethlehem Hospital, London (Bedlam), became an institution for the insane in 1407. German refugees from Prague founded Leipzig University in 1409; and St. Andrews University was founded in Edinburgh in 1411. Filippo Brunelleschi wrote Rules of Perspective, in 1412, and in the Disputation of Tortosa in Spain, Joseph Albo (1380-1444) defended the Jewish faith in 1413. (Grunn 1991, 200-201)

A year after Chartier's La Bell Dame sans merci; Louvain University was founded (1426); followed by the capture of Joan of Arc in 1430; and the introduction of the great cast-iron gun. Modern English developed from Middle English in 1430. In 1440 the Platonic Academy was founded in Florence. The African slave trade began in 1441

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when Portugese navigators found the first Negroes near Cape Blanc. In 1444, Cosimo de' Medici founded the Biblioteca Medicea in Florence. (Grunn 1991, 204-207)

In 1447, Palermo University was founded; and in 1450, the Vatican Library. Florence became the center of the Renaissance and Humanism. Mocha in southwestern Arabia became the main port for coffee export. Glasgow University was founded in 1451, the year Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci were born. In 1451, Leonardo da Vinci was born, and metal plates were used for printing. The Gutenberg 42-line Mazarin bible was printed in 1453, and produced Indulgences bearing printed data in 1454; followed by the death of Fra Angelico in 1455. (Grunn 1991, 208-209)

Prince Henry (1349-1460) improved the compass, made maps, and reintroduced the Astrolabe, allowing a ship's latitude to be calculated by determining the angle of the sun above the horizon at noon. In 1461, Leonardo da Vinci became a pupil of Verrocchio. Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), an astronomer and mathematician proposed the heliocentric system of modern astronomy. (Lamm 1996, 262)

The Platonic Academy was founded in Florence by Cosimo de' Medici (1389-1464) in 1462. Marsilio Ficino promoted the study of Platonism by translating the great Greek works into Latin. His major work, Theologia Platonica (1482) asserted that God attracted man to him with beauty. The contemplation and creation of beauty became worship, a spiritual extension of people to their loving God, and resulted in the perfection of man. In 1486, Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man, became the manifesto of Humanism. (Lamm 1996, 264)

In 1492, Columbus discovered America, and in 1497, John Cabot landed in near Labrador and Newfoundland, giving England claim to North America. Cortez (1485-1547) conquered the Aztecs in Mexico in 1519, and Pizarro (1471-1541) conquered the Incan Empire in Peru in 1531-3. (Lamm 1996, 268)

In 1588, St. Augistine, Florida was mapped; and in 1602, Gosnold landed at South Dartmouth, MA and discovered New England. The first white settlement north of Florida was in Calais, Mexico. By 1607, a colonialist settlement and government set up in Jamestown Virginia, and a Thanksgiving service was held. A year later, Watson published a history of the colony: A True Relation of Occurrences…in Virginia. (Kane 1981, 720)

A college was proposed in 1617 in Henrico, VA. The first Indian treaty was signed at Plymouth, MA in 1621, and horses were imported in 1629. Popcorn was introduced the next year, followed by the establishment of a militia. The first school in America, 1633, was in New York City, 365 years ago. An educational endowment was established in 1634. The first public school with a continuous existence was established in 1635; and America's first college was Howard College established in Cambridge, MA in 1636, some 362 years ago. (Kane 1981, 720-721)

A printing press arrived in Cambridge, MA, in 1639; the first American printing occurred; and the first school, supported by direct taxation, was established. By 1642, Howard College conferred its first BA degree, and Massachusetts enacted a compulsory education law. An American Indian-English Dictionary and a spelling book were published in 1643. An endowed school was built in Roxbury, MA, followed by an elected school committee. (Kane 1981, 722-723)

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By 1648, the colonial laws were compiled into a book; and in 1649, Maryland established the Religious Liberty Act. In 1657, Jews won full citizenship rights. The Quakers arrived in MA a year before. In 1660, New England had a church for American Indians, and translated the Bible into the Indian language in 1663.Two years later, the first American Indian graduated from Howard College; followed by the publication of an Indian Grammar book. A Primer in an Indian dialect, and a history, New England's Memorial, were published in 1669.The first copyright law passed in 1672. (Kane 1981, 723-724)

The first postal service served NY and Boston in 1673; a prison was constructed in 1676; a book of maps was published 1677; and an educational trust fund was created in 1682 in Burlington, NJ. The Boston Philosophical Society was founded in 1683; and William Pen wrote a Law Book in Pennsylvania in 1687. In 1693, England chartered the College of William and Mary. Howard College published a book catalogue in 1697; and a library was established in Charleston, SC. (Kane 1981, 724-725) Three hundred years ago, education as we know it (in schools and universities) became organized around the printed book. (Drucker 1992, 97)

The Young Secretary Guide, was published in 1703. A permanent American Indian school was established in 1720 at Williamsburg, VA. English Grammar by an American, was published in 1724, and American Arithmetic was published in 1729. The first circulating library was formed in Philadelphia, PA, 1731. (Kane 1981, 725-727)

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A school for Protestant girls was established in PA, 1742; the same year Ben Franklin invented the heating stove. The New York Bar Association formed in 1747, and A New Guide to the English Tongue was published. The Academy and College of PA was founded (1749) and Ben Franklin did electric cooking experiments and invented the lightning rod. A Teaching Methods book was completed in 1750; followed by the opening of a manual training school in 1751. (Kane 1981, 728-729)

The first law school (1755) was at King's College, now Columbia University. The first Indian Reservation was established in NJ in 1758, 240 years ago. In 1760, the marine chronometer enabled the determination of longitude. A Discourse Upon the Institution of Medical Schools in America, a medical book was published in 1765. Ben Franklin was advocating spelling reform in 1768. The first school house was started in the Allegheny Mountains in Ohio in 1772. By 1776, George Washington received the first honorary degree; Phi Beta Kappa fraternity started in Williamsburg, VA; and the NJ colony was the first to grant women the right to vote. (Kane 1981, 729-734)

Thanksgiving was celebrated by all the colonies December 18, 1777. The first college elective system of study was adopted in Williamsburg, VA in 1779. The first legally designated university was the University of Pennsylvania in 1779. The first Modern-Language School in a college and Law School in a college appeared in Williamsburg, VA, the same year. (Kane 1981, 735-736)

The year 1786 saw these firsts: an American botany book, a Federal Indian reservation, mineralogy instruction, and the use of "E Pluribus Unum" on money.

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The United States Constitution was signed in 1787, and the U.S. Congress first met in New York City in 1788. (Kane 1981, 736)

In the early 1790's an American agricultural dictionary was written, and lawyers were admitted to the supreme court. James Derham became the first black doctor, the first Naturalization and IRS acts passed, and the first Cesarian Section was performed.

After 1795, George Washington College was established in TN; the University of North Carolina was chartered by the state; and the first women became government employees. After 1797 there were American architecture and cook books, a patent on the washing machine, a U.S. Encyclopedia, a nursing school, education association, standardized weights and measures, and an authorization for the Library of Congress. (Kane 1981, 739-743)

The early 1800's saw a book on dentistry, the inauguration of Thomas Jefferson, a U.S. Military Academy, a Children's Library, and the first Federal Land Grant College (Ohio State University). After 1807, New York City had a Deaf School and Harvard became the first college with an orchestra, and entrance requirements other than Greek, Latin, and Arithmetic. (Kane 1981, 743-746)

New York had the first School Superintendent in 1813, and Vermont had a college for women. Norwich University offered Civil Engineering (1819); Boston opened an English Classical High School (1820); Philadelphia had a Pharmacy School (1821); and Vermont had the first academy for teacher preparation (1823). Hobart College offered the first courses without Greek or Latin (1824).

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Illinois enacted the first public school tax (1825); and NYC had the first kindergarten and nursery schools. (Kane 1981, 748-753)

These firsts occurred in 1829: The typewriter and the fountain pen were patented, a passenger locomotive was built (the Tom Thumb); and in 1830, the railroad was chartered. NYC had the first free public evening school (1833); and Oberlin Collegiate Institute boasted the first co-ed campus (1834). The first state board of education was formed in 1837; as well as the first Child Labor Law with educational provisions.

(Kane 1981, 754-758)

These firsts occurred between 1838-1849: Charleston, SC opened the first municipal university; Louisiana provided free lunches (1838); and the telegraph and telegrams came into use (1844). A school with 1 class per room was established in Quincy, MA; the rubber tire was patented; and a Child Labor Law restricted worker's ages. The Boston Female Medical School opened (1848); Massachusetts opened a school for the mentally retarded; and the American Association for the Advancement of Science was founded. (Kane 1981, 759-765)

By 1850, Oberlin College graduated the first black woman; an adding machine with keys was patented; and degrees were offered in American History. In 1851, Copper Union College in NYC was the first to prohibit discrimination on race, religion or color; and the refrigerator and sewing machines were patented. By 1852, MA had the first Compulsory School Attendance Law; Ohio's Antioch College was first to grant women equal rights, and Michigan chartered the first state agricultural college in Lansing.

In 1855, the Boston Veterinary Institution incorporated. (Kane 1981, 765-769)

The following had their debuts between 1857-1865: Washington, D.C. had the first national deaf-mute college (1857); Massachusetts enacted literacy requirements for voting; and a Manual of Psychological Medicine was published (1858). Steel pens were produced (1858); Farmer's High School of Pennsylvania opened;, and the Missouri School for the Blind adopted the Braille system. The electric light was used for domestic illumination; the Government Printing Office was established (1860); the Civil War began (1861); Abe Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation (1862); and Massachusetts Institute of Technology opened the Boston Architectural School (1865). (Kane 1981, 770-776)

The year 1866 marked the first human artificial insemination, refrigerated fruit railroad shipment, train robbery, YWCA, and legalization of the metric system. The U.S. Department of Education was authorized in 1867. Philadelphia established the first commercial high school (1868); the first Kindergarten Manual was published (1869), St. Louis Law School admitted women, and the motion picture was patented (1869). (Kane 1981, 777-780)

Virginia authorized the first state school for Blacks (1869); Ann Arbor, MI had the first college entrance "certified school plan" (1871); Mississippi established the first Black Land Grant College (1871);, and Boston had an Oral School for the Deaf. An intercontinental system of study was first introduced in Boston (1875); and St. Louis, MO authorized the first public school kindergarten, around the time of the first margarine, linoleum, cable car, adding machine, and carpet sweeper patents. (Kane 1981, 780-785)

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The first outdoor wire telephone conversation and telephone patent occurred in 1876, when the Nurse's Training School in Boston introduced Occupational Therapy Treatment. These firsts appeared between 1878-1889: The Edison Electric Light Company was incorporated (1878); the first Home Study Course was offered in NY; and an electrical hearing-aid was patented. Street lights, a hydroelectric power plant, Pennsylvania's School of Commerce and Finance, and photographs made the scene. The linotype machine, NYC's acting school, and gas pumps had arrived. Iowa saw the first appendectomy; D.C. opened a business high school; and Kansas opened the first county high school. (Kane 1981, 786-798)

School was scheduled around the agricultural society. School ended in the mid-afternoon to allow students home before dark to milk cows, and do other farm chores. Saturday was for farm repairs, maintenance, harvesting, and planting. Sunday was a day for rest and religion. Summers were reserved for harvesting, tilling, barn building, and other major farm projects. (O' Banion 1997, 8)

In the 1890's, the industrial economy began to replace an agricultural economy. Then, 90% of the population left school after the 8th grade. The old structure adopted a new industrial model. Henry Ford's assembly line appeared ideal for operating schools. From a one-room schoolhouse cottage industry, schools became operated like factories. Students, the products, moved through a series of teachers on an assembly line of grade- specific classrooms. Principals and presidents managed the teachers. (O' Banion 1997, 8)

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In the early 1900's, William Bagley published "Classroom Management," a book that introduced the institution of education to business management principles and economies. (O'Banion 1997, 12) Leonard later called it "a crude way of handling a large number of learners with a much smaller number of teachers." He asserts that it sufficed in the past because society required few academics and technical citizens. (Leonard 1992, 26)

The Carnige unit attempted to codify accumulated learning. It came to represent the 1 credit students get for a yearlong high school course. Students traditionally earned 5 credits in each of the 4 years of high school; 20 credits being satisfactory for graduation. (O' Banion 1997, 8)

Grades are the means of academic exchange. Paul Dressel attacks grading as: "an inadequate report of an inaccurate judgement by biased and variable judges of the extent to which a student has attained an undefined level of mastery of an unknown proportion of an indefinite material." (Dressel 1983, 1)

Chicago was the first to offer college extension courses (1893); the automobile was produced and sold (1895); and NYC boasted motion pictures and electric taxicabs (1897). When the Spanish-American war started (1898), Boston had a technical college for women. The household refrigerator and the motor driven vacuum cleaner (1899) soon followed. (Kane 1981, 799-805)

In 1900, Iowa opened a Chiropractic School, and Cleveland opened a kindergarten for crippled children. Health was taught in NYC schools, public radio was [p.42] demonstrated, and Manhattan opened the Trade School for Girls (1901). "American" was recommended as an adjective (1904), Boston opened a Vocational High School for Girls, and the first phonograph record, Rhodes Scholar, and NY subway debuted. (Kane 1981, 806-809)

In 1905, the International School of Aeronautics opened as a correspondence school; Missouri had a Journalism School; and Rhode Island had an outdoor school for tubercular children. In 1909, Cincinnati opened an apprentice continuation school; and Columbus had a junior high school; Berkeley, CA organized a junior high school system; and NYC opened the Neurological Research Institute. The copy machine was manufactured in 1910, and the Boy Scouts organized in NY. (Kane 1981, 810-815) In 1915, the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU) formed to ensure that liberal learning formed the core of undergraduate education. (O'Banion 1997, 19)

By 1916, a Hygiene and Public health school was established in Baltimore, Maryland; and a birth control clinic opened in NYC. WWI began in 1917, Philadelphia established an Advertising School (1920); Illinois had Braille correspondence school for the blind; a microfilm reading device was patented (1922); and legislation made American an official language. Contac lenses were imported and The Seeing Eye Inc. first trained dogs for the blind (1929). (Kane 1981, 820-833)

During the 1960's, U.S. campus-based colleges were transforming into community-based colleges, at a rate of one each week. They did not borrow European models, but were designed to serve American priorities. European models were based on the assumption that only a certain portion of the population needed and could profit from a college education. U.S. goals ambitiously sought the higher education of 25-50% of the population. The community college served all that desired an education, mostly the unserved populations of adult, full-time workers with families. It created remedial programs to prepare the new students for college work. (O'Banion 1997, ix-x)

In 1962, Dewey refocused attention on the fact that unconsciously, from birth, humans learn to do, by doing. "Our first teachers.... are our feet, hands, and eyes. To substitute books for them does not teach us to reason; it teaches us to use the reasons of others rather than our own; it teaches us to believe much and to know little." (Dewy and Dewy 1962, 2)

In 1965, the Education Commission of the States (ECS) formed to assist governors, legislators, and education officials to develop policies to improve education at all levels. (Armajani et al. 1994, 1)

Howard Gardner of Harvard University challenged the one-dimensional predictive utility of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, when he identified 7 kinds of "intelligence" or independent ways that humans have of "knowing." These are: 1.) Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence, 2.) Logical/Mathematical Intelligence, 3.) Visual/Spatial Intelligence. 4.) Body/Kinesthetic Intelligence, 5.) Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence, 6.) Interpersonal Intelligence, and 7.) Intrapersonal Intelligence. (Gardner 1983)

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The 1983 publication of A Nation At Risk triggered the biggest educational reform movement in history. It read, "Once unchallenged…in industry, science, and technological innovation [the United States] is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world…. eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity…committing an act of unthinking unilateral educational disarmament." (National Commission on Excellence in Education 1983, 5) Unfortunately, little has resulted from the increased graduation requirements, toughened teaching credentialization, and increase in technology use. Mostly, what and how students learn has remained unchanged. (O'Banion 1997, xiii, xvi, 2)

Researchers studied classrooms with stopwatches in 1986. With the ideal of "individualized instruction," (responsive to learning styles and motivations) what is the reality of individualization in a typical classroom of 30 students? Each student can have only 10 seconds of individual instruction for each hour in class. This amounts to only 1 minute in a 6-hour day, or 1/2 day per 180-day school year, or 1 week of individualized instruction in 13 years. "The best teachers who concentrate very hard can sometimes double this statistic, but even 2 weeks of individualized instruction over 13 years is not enough for many students." (Heuston 1986, 10-11)

Also in 1986, a group of leading educational researchers gathered at Wingspread in Racine, Wisconsin to review all the literature on college learning. They distilled this information into Seven principles for Good Practices in Undergraduate Education. Good practice encourages student-faculty contact, student cooperation, active learning, supplies feedback promptly, emphasizes time on task, communicates high expectations, and respects diverse talents and learning styles. (Chickering and Gamson 1987, 1)

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In 1989, the nation's governors created the National Education Goals, which focused on increased standards, teaching salaries, graduation requirements, and state assessment. The Clinton administration recast these as Goals 2000, calling for a restructuring to focus on results over process and regulation. (O'Banion 1997, 5)

In 1990, Caine and Caine, crystallized brain-learning research. Their 12 learning principles follow: 1.) The brain is a parallel processor, 2.) Learning engages the entire physiology, 3.) The search for meaning is innate, 4.) and occurs through "patterning," 5.) Emotions are critical to patterning, 6.) Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes, 7.) Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception, 8.) Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes, 9.) There are 2 memory types: spatial systems and rote systems, 10.) The brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded in natural spatial memory, 11.) Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat, 12.) Each brain is unique. (Caine and Caine 1990, 66)

A 1991 University of Michigan summary report stated that students receiving computer-assisted instruction acquire information 20% faster, and achieve 20% greater learning outcomes than traditional methods. (Kulik and Kulik 1991)

A 1992 analysis of bachelor's recipient transcripts by the U.S. Department of Education found that 26% earned no history credits, 31 studied no math, and 58% had no foreign language study. The Educational Testing Service reported that 56% of American-born 4-year college graduates were consistently unable to calculate the change from $3 after buying a 30 cent soup and $1.95 sandwich.

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Only 50% had even an intermediate level of reading competency. Performance significantly declined compared with a 1985 study. (Wingspread Group on Higher Education 1993, 5-6)

George Leonard observed that school achievement has remained flat for 20 years, despite frantic test preparation and increased school funding. He proposes the unthinkable: Improving school, as we know it can no longer improve education "…school is not the solution. It is the problem." (Lenonard 1992, 26) Lewis J. Perelman, concurs: "…the central failure of our educational system is not inadequacy but excess…barrier to economic progress today is a mind-set that seeks to perfect education when it needs only to be abandoned." (Perelman 1992, 24)

"The rich array of periodicals, databases, scholarly literature, image libraries, federal and state documents and scientific research coming online on a daily (or even hourly) basis is stunning- and fundamentally changes the traditional definition of the library as the primary campus archive or information repository." (Green and Gilbert 1995, 15)

The Wingspread Group on Higher Education, created in 1993, seeks to transform American education into a seamless system producing and supporting a nation of learners by delivering appropriate education when and wherever it is needed. In 1993, the American Imperative called for redesign of education to match the work, personal, and civic needs of the 21st century. (Wingspread Group on Higher Education 1993, 19)

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It seeks not to tweak the current system, but to overhaul its tradition with new constructions, not restricted to the current time-bound, role-bound, place-bound, and efficiency-bound architecture. It stresses de-emphasis of bureaucracy, and relevant student knowledge acquisition, a directive priority. O'Banion's movement calls this new model of education, "the learning college." (O'Banion 1997, xiv) O'Banion calls traditional attempts at school reform, "trimming the branches of a dying tree." (O'Banion 1995, 1)

A national commission identified the "class hour" and the 6-hour day, 180-day school year, as the "unacknowledged design flaw" in American education. "We have built the learning enterprise on a foundation of sand," the report states, because it contradicts everything known about how learning occurs. No matter how complex the subject, an impartial 51 minutes per class period is imposed, regardless of student comprehension. It asserts change from measuring time on task, to measurements of subject mastery. (National Education Commission on Time and Learning 1994, 7-8)

"Nature has not adapted the young animal to the narrow desk, the crowded curriculum, [and] the silent absorption of complicated facts." (Dewey 1962, 15) Education has become cloistered, a separate societal domain. "School is a place," O'Banion points out. This erroneous assumption and tradition that you must go to a designated "place" to learn is a major barrier to progress. (O'Banion 1997, 11) In a section on brain-based research, O'Banion points out, "In fact, it is becoming increasingly clear that the school is organized in ways that are completely antagonistic to how learning occurs in the brain." (O'Banion 1997, 88)

In 1991, the Autodesk Foundation incorporated to design and develop new models for education. It reintroduced the view that people learn by doing. These Project-Based Learning (PBL) programs tap students' drive to learn and ability to do important work. Learning experiences are real world, complex, multi-disciplinary, and develop and utilize new skills and knowledge. Students sharpen resource allocation abilities. Project results are neither predetermined nor predictable. Teachers report that students are motivated and self-directed when allowed to be problem solvers, planners, and managers. (Oakley 1995, 15)

Plater calls the classroom the most fundamental unit of academic life. He asserts "the sanctity of the classroom and the authority of the teacher within it" must be replaced by the open architecture of new learning research and technological applications that can replace the campus, school, classroom, and library. (Plater 1992, 125)

Peter Drucker, the management expert, observed that, "Nothing is less productive than to make more efficient what should not be done at all." (Drucker 1992, 29) O'Banion points out the thousands of federal, state, and local statutes and regulations imposed on educational delivery. More offices and staff are added to monitor and administer existing and the new 500 bills introduced each year. Thomas Nassbaum, chancellor, says, "we are loosing the capacity to serve...students." D.V. Hook, a college president, said, "we have far more reasons why we can't [cooperate, innovate] than why we can!" (O' Banion 1997, 13)

O'Banion blames a lack of on-the-job teacher training, for the perpetration of outmoded lecture teaching methods. Hense, teachers remain bound to the role of "knowledge expert," when in reality, knowledge is expanding far too rapidly for anyone

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to be an expert. Yet the teacher still serves as sole judge and jury over their student's lives. Even educational terminology is rooted in the idea of an active leader herding a passive flock. (O'Banion 1997, 15)

In 1993, the leaders of the 9 regional accreditation associations and 7 higher education associations established The National Policy Board on Higher Education Institutional Accreditation (NPB). It mandated moving beyond the traditional evaluation of an institution's resources, processes, governance, objectives and mission when granting accreditation. It called for all institutions to adopt eligibility criteria and meaningful course and core standards that emphasize student learning. (Independence, Accreditation, and the Public Interest 1994, 17)

In 1994, the ECS proposed an "enterprise model" of education focusing on the student as customer, with accountability for outcomes and positive assumptions about student and employee motivation. (Armajani et al 1994, 1-2) Doucette defines the new expected learning outcomes as "the ability to gain access to information, to interpret it, to give it context, to use information to solve problems, and to collaborate with others in problem solution." (Doucette 1994, 23)

Daniel Goleman, a Harvard psychologist, elaborated on Gardner's multiple intelligences in his 1995 book, Emotional Intelligence. Goleman advocates making social and emotional competence, or life skills, key parts of the curriculum. Yale University promotes emotional literacy with its National Collaborative for the Advancement of Social and Emotional Learning. (O'Banion 1997, 86)

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In 1995, Eli Noam, a professor at Columbia's Graduate School of Business, stated the 3 functions of the university: 1.) the creation and validation of new knowledge, 2.) the preservation of information, and 3.) knowledge transmission through teaching. Noam noted that the traditional flow of information has reversed. "In the past, people came to the information, which was stored at the university. In the future, the information will come to people, wherever they are." (Noam 1995, 249)

O'Banion defines the educational revolution: "The learning college places learning first and provides educational experiences for learners anyway, anyplace, anytime." (O'Banion 1995-96, 22) He defines a model designed for the convenience of the learners, instead of institutions and their staff. (O'Banion 1997, 47)

In 1996, the world's largest educational publisher, Simon and Schuster, gave the Western Governor's Association (WGA) a major grant to design a technological Virtual University (VU). The VU is to allow education at home and work, focus on student competency instead of "seat time," and create widely accepted high performance standards. (O'Banion 1997, 23)

Bob Nelson, chairman of WGA, said, "…opportunities to learn are everywhere." Utah governor, Mike Leavitt, observed, "There was a time when if you wanted a college education you went to a college campus because that's where the professors and information were, but technology is changing all that. Education no longer has to be bound by place. In the Knowledge Age, the knowledge will go where the people are." (Media Advisory 1996, 1)

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The American Council on Education (ACE) issued "Guiding Principles for Distance Learning in a Learning Society" in 1996. It noted that continuous learning is essential for effective civic and economic participation. The needs, modes and contexts available and required to meet these learning goals are diverse. Development of a "learning society" will require changes in traditional student, and teaching roles, responsibilities and activities. (American Council on Education 1996, 2-4)

In the 1996 position paper of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) union, technology and distance education are denounced as a threat to the education profession. AFT rallies for credit only for home campus courses taught by faculty appointed and evaluated traditionally. Restrictions are sought on the number of distance education credits granted, and classes exclusively taught by technology are opposed. AFT bargains for contracts protecting professors choosing not to use new technologies. (Blumenstyk 1996, A20)

Despite resistance to technology and the changes it brings, those individuals and institutions that embrace it will control the economies of the present and future. Every 1996 vocational program graduate in Ohio got a "smart card" called a "Career Passport." Similar to an ATM card, it contains a personal profile, transcripts, attendance records, competencies, agency guarantees, letters of recommendation, and other relevant programming. (Miami Valley Career Technology Center 1995, 2) Armed with the latest tools facilitating education and employment, the technological "haves" will have a significant "edge" on the competition.

Civilization has progressed because of the learning of the new generation the knowledge of the old generation. This knowledge is then expounded upon, learned and added to by subsequent generations. Some ideas are kept, some are abandoned, some invented, some resurrected. The practical and romantic bodies of knowledge held in current esteem are a culture's historical fabric, its character foundation, and its reference for measure.

In certain contexts, throughout all of history, learning was isolated from living, and attended to with exclusive concentration. The time away from other productive tasks, spent in teaching and learning, resulted in profits of efficiency and accomplishment of individual and collective goals. From one-on-one teaching, to organized group learning, all cultures have invented methods of conferring essential knowledge upon their participants.

In America, we follow organized education through early religious teaching organizations, to formal collective "public" efforts, to specialized colleges and universities, to local practical-skill community colleges, to virtual universities offering the recognized structure and measure of courses, credits, and degrees without the constraints of campus-bound delivery.

All of education, in its infinite forms, is borne of individual or social needs. It serves the goals of the teachers, learners and collective culture as a whole.

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When established institutions and methods no longer serve the new needs of the participants, reform is called for, goals redefined, change planned, strategy implemented- the evolution continues. There is nothing static about life, living, teaching, or learning, but humans have always desired a static model that they could predict. The human mind strives toward an understanding of the gears of life, and is agitated, and disturbed by conditions it cannot understand, predict, or control.

All of man's ideas, his religion and inventions, are efforts to make time stand still- long enough to grapple with the infinite. Of course, man's efforts are in vain. Each new generation marvels at the thoughts and creations of its ancestors, imagining itself the superior intellect. To temper such instinctive elementary reasoning, a "formal education" is prescribed.

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Gardner, Howard. 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory for Multiple Intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.

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Good, G.H. 1968. A History of American Education.2nd ed., New York, NY: Macmillan

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Copyright © 1998 by Renee M. Newman All Rights Reserved

© MARCH 1998

RENEE M. NEWMAN