TECHNOLOGY for DYSLEXIA:

FEDERAL EDUCATION &

DISABILITY LAW COMPLIANCE

PROVEN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

 Copyright © 1998 by Renee M. Newman All Rights Reserved

INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------1

SPECIAL EDUCATION LAW AND PROCESS----------------------------------4

DYSLEXIA---------------------------------------------------------------------------------12

THE HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF DYSLEXIA-----------------------------15

NEWMAN O-G MODEL OF COMPUTER DRIVEN INSTRUCTION----24

FASTFORWORD™-------------------------------------------------------------------30

CONCLUSION-----------------------------------------------------------------------------34

COMPUTER EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY:

MOVEMENTS, PROGRAMS AND RESOURCES----------------------------38

REFERENCES---------------------------------------------------------------------------39

INTRODUCTION

Just how pervasive is the American problem of unmastered basic and advanced academic skills? What are the consequences for those who fall short? What impact do the academic "have-nots" have on modern American culture? What applications of available technology, within the typical classroom, can facilitate the acquisition of basic and advanced academic skills? What laws and government initiatives drive this process? Specifically, what researched technological solutions successfully overcome the learning challenges experienced by dyslexic students? How can employment of technological solutions result in practical, fiscally responsible, compliance with the federal education and disability rights laws concerning people with "specific learning disabilities (SLDs)?"

Who are the 11% of all U.S. students, aged 16-24, who dropout of school? (NCES 1997, 3) Who are the 92.6% of 17 year-olds who graduate without math proficiency in multi-step problem solving and algebra? (NCES 1997, 123-124) Who are the 21% of American adults who cannot read a simple paragraph, or the 22% who cannot perform simple arithmetic? (NCES 1997, 416)

They are the individuals, surviving, but causing havoc in society. Consider Michigan's most costly industrial accident, the mixing of PBB with cattle feed. A forklift operator, who could not read the word "poison" on a label, caused it. Because employees could not read rulers correctly, one carpet manufacturer reported annual product losses exceeding $250,000. America pays over $308. billion for the governmental support and lost lifetime earnings of illiterate people between the ages of 24 and 35. In federal prisons, 80% are illiterate, and the annual cost of housing an inmate exceeds $25,000. The annual cost to keep one juvenile in a state training school exceeds $35,000. On welfare, 1/3 are functionally illiterate. (Weger 1989, 36)

In 1990, only 34% of SLD students, out of school for up to 3 years, were living independently. Average annual compensation for SLD adults was a paltry $6,932. Of the 58.5% of employed Speech-Language Impaired (S-LD) adults, only 36.4% lived independently. Their average annual wage amounted to a measly $4,389. (NCES 1997, 113)

One in every 6 adults over age 24 does not have a high school diploma or a GED. These non-graduates have an unemployment rate twice that of graduates and 4 times that of college graduates. (NCES 1997, 415) In 1995, the median average income for dropouts was $11,924., compared with $17,705. for graduates, and $31,553. for college graduates. (NCES 1997, 421)

A majority of the academic "have nots" are "specifically learning disabled" (SLD). This is a misleading term because it implies that they are unable to learn, when in fact, they are capable of learning with nontraditional methods. Think of Helen Keller. She was learning disabled until she was learning enabled by sign language, Braille, and assistance with daily living skills.

Similarly, SLD individuals have concrete, hands-on, verbally driven, and physically active learning styles that are not accommodated with typical quiet, sedentary classroom instruction. They are of above average intelligence, but cannot demonstrate their intelligence in the typical academic setting. This makes their difficulties, not just a matter of learning, but of performance and self-esteem.

There are many causes of learning difficulties. Most have physiological basis, are genetically passed from generation to generation, and coexist with other developmental and behavioral patterns, or syndromes. Academically, "Special Education" psychology, and methods, programs, laws, and services typically address learning difficulties.

Federal and State special education laws were designed to insure that all students with disabilities receive a free and appropriate public education. This education provides for special and related services individually designed to meet unique needs and prepare for employment and independent living. (LRP Publications 1997, 5A)

Despite these laws, the United States public education system, serving 90% of American students, still graduates an alarming number of students without functional speaking, arithmetic, reading, handwriting, composition, computer, and problem solving skills. Compared to other nations, American students graduate with less foreign language and higher level math and science study, and score comparatively lower on tests. (OERI Bulletin fall/winter 1996) Advanced skills are prerequisite for gainful employment and mobility in a global technical economy.

Two federal statutes dictate the parameters and rules for special educational services. Important in this paper, are the provisions of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997.

IDEA now mandates that Individual Education Programs (IEPs) consider whether the student would benefit from assistive technological (AT) devices and services. Assistive technology includes devices and services used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capabilities of a disabled child. (LRP Publications 1997, 5A)

In 1988, the Technology Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act, provided for federal assistance to states for development and implementation of consumer-friendly statewide programs offering technology-related assistance to persons of all ages with disabilities. (NCES 1997, 380)

Other legislation supports technology for educational delivery. The Educational Broadcasting Facilities & Telecommunications Demonstration Act of 1976 established a demonstration project to promote the development of non-broadcast telecommunication facilities and services for the delivery of educational information. The 1990 Excellence in Mathematics, Science & Engineering Education Act, created a national math and science clearinghouse and created several related education programs. (NCES 1997, 380)

This paper will assert the use of researched and proven technology to increase the quantity, quality, frequency, and effectiveness of needed individualized instruction for dyslexic students. This technology will improve the relevance and application of regular classroom instruction, and will be a ready tutor for each student needing additional help in any subject. At the same time, students will develop connections with others around the world, and become empowered by computer experiences directly applicable to home, work, and community.

In Section 681 of IDEA, Congress reports that Federal support for technological research, development, educational media services and activities has resulted in major significant innovations and improvements in early intervention, services, and results for children and families with disabilities. Government will continue to stimulate the development of research, software, interactive learning tools, early intervention devices, and education to promote the integration of technology into the curricula in "timely and accessible formats," and to provide adequate training for parents, students, and teachers in technology use. (LRP Publications 1997, 47A)

The new IDEA 1997 promises higher expectations for children with educational disabilities. The general curriculum must be accessed to the maximum extent possible. Parents have opportunities for participation. Appropriate special education and related services, aids, and supports must be planned in the regular education classroom. Technical and media services must be coordinated. Professionals receive high-quality development. Pre-referral interventions, multidisciplinary interagency coordination, whole-school approaches, and bureaucracy reduction are new priorities. (LRP Publications 1997, 4A-5A)

IDEA mandates that students be educated in the "least restrictive environment" or the regular education classroom, (also known as "mainstreaming" or "inclusion") if the student can achieve satisfactorily with the help of "supplementary aids and services (SAS)." The courts recognize a wide range of SAS: behavior plans, co-teaching, classroom aids, assistive technology and services, curriculum modification, and support for school personnel. (Hakola 1997)

In an average regular education classroom, there is 1 teacher for every 17.6 pupils. (NCES 1997, 1) Averaging national statistics, the typical American classroom is composed of 10 poor students, 10 racial or ethnic minorities (6 speak a foreign language at home & 2-4 of these 6 are limited in English proficiency [LEP]. Half of these LEP students are immigrants.) (OERI BULLETIN Fall/Winter 1996 a) About 2 students are disabled. As many as 4 have some learning disability. (NCES 1997, 67) Clearly, the teacher is handed an impossible assignment. With so many needy students competing for undivided attention, what can be done?

For dyslexic students, and all students, integrated study is recommended. With technology, this is easily achieved through fun, interactive, multi-media computer programs, video, and presentation devices. Integrated learning means that all of the facets of a time frame are considered, and study is made of how each component serves to influence the others. A serious concurrent study is made of history, economics, music, art, language, social studies, literature, science, technology, philosophy, theology, geography, political science, and a survey of major foreign languages. All of these components are assembled, exemplified, and brought to life by pictures, color, narration, simulation, dramatization, 3-dimentional imaging, virtual reality technology, video, interactivity, and real communication with people and places via the Internet.

The federal government subsidizes the school district's costs for providing specialized AT equipment for each student that requires these to benefit from their educational program. (LRP Publications 1997, 8A) Assistive technology is provided at no cost to the parents. In addition to the equipment itself, the school district is also required to sometimes allow at-home use, and provide the training and evaluation necessary for optimal AT use. (Smith 1997)

What if a student experiences chronic academic difficulties? A teacher should contact the building principal to obtain student testing. A parent may request an evaluation at any time if they suspect a learning disability, or suspect that stated educational goals are not being achieved. The request should be made formally, in writing, to the school building principal. IDEA requires that students be assessed in all areas of suspected disability. The parent should request, in writing, and review, a complete copy of all the student's records.

In their Parent Report, the parent should identify unmet educational objectives and the successful and unsuccessful strategies, accommodations, and interventions (or lack of these) designated to achieve program goals. The parent should offer insight on why the methods or programs were unsuccessful, and offer supported recommendations.

After receiving the written request, or teacher referral, the school has 30 days to respond to the request and to schedule an evaluation. The evaluation must be completed within 30 days and conclude with an IEPC (Individual Education Programming Committee) meeting held in a convenient place and time for all parties involved.

The student can be present at the IEPC meeting, and the parents may choose to bring an advocate. Prior to the meeting, the parents should submit for the IEPC, their Parent Report, where the parent and student's perspectives and concerns are presented. The parent should note the student's strengths, study habits, areas of difficulty, goals, attitudes, successes and frustrations. This Parent Report becomes attached to the other IEPC reports that are considered for IEP planning.

In children ages 3-9, a "disability" can be a delay in physical, cognitive, communication, social, emotional, or adaptive development. (LRP Publications 1997, 5A) Infants and toddlers, under age 3, receive services, including AT devices and services, when they are at risk of experiencing a substantial developmental delay if early intervention services are not provided. (LRP Publications 1997, 30A-31A)

Under IDEA, an IEPC (or IEP Team) consisting of the professionals involved with the student and the Multidisciplinary Evaluation Team (MET), the parent, and a qualified AT evaluator (as of July 1998), must determine if AT is required to benefit from the educational program. The IEP document must clearly state the assistive technology and services to be used, their duration and frequency, and the educational goals and objectives of the technology. (Smith 1997)

If it is determined that the student does not qualify under IDEA for special education services, the student can still quality for special services under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The written educational plan is then called an Accommodation Plan. The U.S. Department of Civil Rights enforces this plan of necessary adjustments in the regular education classroom. Section 504 defines a handicap as any "mental or physical impairment that substantially limits a major life activity," i.e. learning and schooling. (Newman 1997, 23, 43)

Section 504 states that an individual, by reason of his handicap, cannot be excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of any program or activity (i.e. public education) receiving Federal financial assistance. (Newman 1997, 27) "Physical or mental impairment" includes physiological conditions affecting neurological systems, any mental or psychological disorder, and specific learning disabilities. (Newman 1997, 30)

Parents do not have to sign any plan until it is completely understood and satisfactory. They can request a copy to consider independently before signing the document in agreement or disagreement. Additional information and evaluations can be requested, and another IEPC meeting scheduled to consider the new information. If the parent disagrees with the IEPC's findings or recommendations, they have a right to an independent evaluation, performed at the district's expense. Should the parent remain dissatisfied, the IEP is appealed to a due process hearing. (Smith 1997)

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, R 340.1713 defines "Specific Learning Disability" (SLD) as a learning problem that is not the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or cultural, environmental or social disadvantage." (LRP Publications 1997, 7A)

SLD is a disorder of one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using spoken or written language. An SLD child does not achieve commensurate with their age or ability levels and has a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement in one or more of the following areas: oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, math calculation, and math reasoning. SLD manifests as an imperfect ability to listen, think, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. (Newman 1997, 1) SLD includes dyscalculia, dyslexia, developmental aphasia, and minimal brain dysfunction. (LRP Publications 1997, 7A)

A comprehensive evaluation by the MET determines current educational performance, ability, and the need for educational programming that is "special" or different than the standard practices used, but unsuccessful with 20% of the student population. IDEA R 340.1745 specifies the MET must include the regular classroom teacher and a "special education-approved teacher or…specialist with knowledge in the area of suspected disability." (Newman 1997, 5)

"Related Services" to assist a child to benefit from special education include: transportation, speech-language pathology, audiology and psychological services, physical, recreation and occupational therapy, rehabilitation, mobility, orientation, diagnostic and evaluative medical services, social work, and counseling. (LRP Publications 1997, 6A)

"Transition Services" must also be considered annually, beginning at age 14, (LEA 1997, 22A) to ensure the student acquires the skills necessary for employment, post-secondary education and vocational training, daily independent living, and community participation. Transitional services include academic and vocational planning, evaluation, community experiences, direct and vocational instruction, and integrated /supported employment. (LRA 1997, 7A)

We have the laws, the special education, the research, and the technology in place. Why do we still have 1,114,670 children annually going through the system without mastering the material presented? The answer lies in the dynamics of school and classroom administration. Simply put, there is a manpower shortage. SLD children cannot obtain the specialized individualized instruction that they require. The nature of dyslexia will be discussed next. Then two technological models will be presented; addressing the individualized instruction of these SLD students. Research results, on the demonstrated success of these AT applications, appear within the models.

B. Slingerland, in the book, "Specific Language- Not Learning-Disability Children," lays out the signs and symptoms of dyslexia, noting that not all signs must be present. In preschool, the following signs are listed: delayed speech; frequently misunderstood speech; difficulty following directions, remembering words, learning new words, or expressing themselves; slow to acquire an expressive vocabulary, or use too many words; and mispronounce words. They may be clumsy or awkward in large muscle activities (dyspraxia): running, hopping, skipping, games, sports. Difficulties with small muscle coordination make trouble holding a pencil, learning to write their name, and doing puzzles. They may avoid or have difficulty recognizing or recalling their own name, letters, or words taught. SLD children may show little desire, or avoidance of, learning to read, write or listen to stories. They may be uncertain of preferred handedness. (Newman 1995, 3)

At the school-age level, Slingerland states that SLD students are verbally interested listeners who have difficulty learning to read. They have difficulty following and comprehending written and spoken directions. They confuse the sequence of letters and numbers in reading and spelling, and continue reversing, transposing, and inverting numbers, letters and words. Problems with written directions and the inability to recall sequences in mental arithmetic result in math performance difficulties. They may be slow word readers with poor comprehension. With an unreliable sense of direction, they confuse left/right, up/down, before/after, north/south, and the days and months. (Newman 1995, 3)

Slingerland: They may mispronounce and transpose syllables in reading and spelling, i.e. jackblack for blackjack. They have difficulty with the syntax sequencing of words in thought for verbalization and writing. Sometimes they may verbalize clearly but lack the ability to spell well enough for written expression. They may succeed in reading but continue misspelling. Writing may be illegible (dysgraphia) or with misformed letters. Short cementing words, like articles and prepositions, are left out. (Newman 1995, 3)

Slingerland also reports that SLD students fall below grade level in reading, writing, speaking and spelling and avoid oral reading and reading for pleasure. Academic progress is just average or not commensurate with intelligence. Due to academic frustration, emotional, behavioral, and attitude problems develop. The result is poor self-esteem and low self-confidence. (Newman 1995, 3) Because genetic markers for dyslexia are located on the 6^th and 15^h chromosomes, the SLD may have relatives with language acquisition problems. (Grigorenko et al. 1997)

In a Family Genetics Study of Subtypes of Reading and Writing Disabilities, at the University of Colorado Learning Disabilities Center, the problem of genetics vs. environment has been discerned. Reading disabilities, and the phonological and orthographic skills necessary for reading, are inheritable, but only 30% to 40% of the individual differences are related to genetic factors. About 70% to 60% appear to be related to environmental factors. (Foorman, Francis, and Fletcher 1997)

The Michigan Dyslexia Institute promotes the positive common characteristics of dyslexics. Dyslexics have fine creative minds, excel in art, music, drama, problem solving, architecture, design, mechanics, engineering, science, math, hands-on activities, outdoor activities, and sometimes athletics. (Newman 1995, 3)

Their intelligence is usually above average, and they are unique in their ability to visualize in 3 dimensions, see the "big picture", think holistically, and arrive at precise solutions by leaps of insight. The philosopher, William James, wrote: "Genius means little more than the faculty of perceiving in an unhabitual way." (Newman 1995, 3)

How would history have changed if certain people with dyslexic characteristics were hindered from achieving their potential because of academic deficiencies? Consider the contributions of Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Leonardo da Vinci, Winston Churchill, Woodrow Wilson, Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Winkler, Rodin, Hans Christian Anderson, General George Patton, Jackie Stewart, Picasso, and Benjamin Franklin. (Weger 1989, 7-11)

If one in every 7 people is dyslexic, and we continue to fail to teach them adequately, it can be likened to a business throwing every 7^th product coming off the assembly line into the scrap bin! No business and no country can afford that amount of waste of resources, human potential, and productivity. (Weger 1989, 7-11)

Dyslexia has been formally studied for 136 years. In 1861, Broca discovered the brain's language areas in the left hemisphere, and Wernicke, in 1874, pinpointed the areas in and around the sylvian fissure. In 1892, Dejerine discovered that damage to the left angular gyrus, a small area in the posterior neocortex, resulted in reading difficulties. Doctors Hinshelwood and Morgan, in 1895 and 1896, proposed that dyslexia was a structural alteration of the angular gyrus, calling it both Dyslexia and Congenital Word Blindness. (Newman 1995, 4)

Samuel Orton, in 1925, asserted dyslexia was caused by incomplete dominance of the language specialized left hemisphere over the right. From 1932-1936, Dr. Orton was Professor of Neurology and Neuropathology at Columbia University and Neuropathologist at New York Neurological Institute. (Rome and Osman 1989, 5)

In 1936, Anna Gillingham analyzed the structure of the language and combined this knowledge with Orton's recommended teaching procedures. With Bessie W. Stillman, she published Remedial Training for Children with Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling and Penmanship, known as the "Gillingham Manual." (Rome and Osman 1989, 5) This successful teaching method is still prominently known today, as the Orton-Gillingham Method, or O-G Language Arts Therapy. Many creative teachers have supplied variations, but the remedial fundamentals of the methodology remain.

Between 1937 and 1942, under Orton's guidance, Dr. Paul Dozier headed a Language Rehabilitation Clinic at the Institute of Pennsylvania Hospital. (Rome and Osman 1989, 5) With the vision that a multidisciplinary effort was needed to understand and treat learning problems, Samuel Kirk, at a conference in 1963, coined the term "learning disabilities." (Foorman, Francis, and Fletcher 1997)

In 1968, Drake undertook microscopic examination of dyslexic brains. He discovered large numbers of small gyri and a thin corpus callosum. The cortex was large, with ectopic (out of place) neurons in the subcortial white matter, which usually only contains nerve fibers, not nerve cell bodies. (Newman 1995, 4)

The Research Group on Developmental Dyslexia from the World Federation of Neurology, recommended, in 1968, the two definitions of dyslexia in use today. "Specific Developmental Dyslexia, is a disorder manifested by difficulty in learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and socio-cultural opportunity. It is dependent upon fundamental cognitive disabilities which are frequently of constitutional origin." Dyslexia is defined as "a disorder in children who, despite conventional classroom experience, fail to attain the language skills of reading, writing and spelling commensurate with their intellectual abilities." (Rome and Osman 1989, 1)

In 1971 Isabelle Liberman and other researchers amassed an enormous amount of evidence proving that: "deficits in phonological processing underlie most cases of reading disability;" and "arise from weaknesses within the language system itself, not from more general sensory or cognitive impairments." (Liberman 1971)

Rawson, in 1978, found that during gestation, dyslexic brain anomalies affect the organization of the brain, especially in the right hemisphere, producing the intellectual superiorities characteristic of dyslexics. In 1980, Gordon tested dyslexic families and found better than average performance on the right hemisphere tasks of model orientation and block design, but below average performance on the right hemisphere tasks of serial sound identification, circles, word production, digit span, and numbers. (Newman 1995, 4)

Between 1982 and 1984, Girshwind and Behan found that left-handed families are 10 times more likely than right-handed families to have learning disabilities, and autoimmune disorders, skeletal malformations, thyroid disorders, and migraines. (Newman 1995, 4)

Dr. Galaburda, between 1979 and 1985, performed autopsies on 8 dyslexic brains and found a 15% rate of unusual bilateral symmetry, and 30-100 abnormalities per brain, clustered around the sylvian fissure and mostly in the left hemisphere. He also found abnormal smallness and poor lamination of the folds and convolutions. Abnormal accumulations of neurons and ectopias (neurons out of place) distorted the surface and were disorganized in the subsurface. Female brains showed neuronal loss and myelinated scars. (Newman 1995, 4)

In 1984, Galaburda asserts that dyslexia, which occurs in 15% of the population, is a normal variation of the human brain, not a disorder. During fetal development, there is superior development of the right hemisphere. The right hemisphere deals with spatial perception, faces, art, and music. It stores movement and touch information about man-made things. This results in superior talent in art, architecture, engineering, photography, mechanics, athletics, theoretical physics, and brain surgery. (Newman 1995, 9)

"Ectopias," or misplaced neurons, are densely and aberrantly connected with other brain areas. One result of ectopia is the alteration of brain organization, like the dyslexic lack of asymmetry in the language-related cortical region called the planum temporal. It is an auditory area that lies on the superior surface of the temporal lobe. Normal subjects usually have a larger (dominant) left hemisphere planum temporal. However, dyslexics show symmetry or equality of this region in both hemispheres. The dyslexic right planum temporal is larger than normal. (Olson 1997)

Sherman, in 1988, found that right brain lesions produce visual-spatial and musical disabilities. Dr. Wood studies live dyslexics. Wood found that 10% of the population have dyslexic brain wave patterns. In 1989, Bever and Sherman asserted that phonological and syntactic uncertainty are the result of abnormally organized language regions with alterations in size, shape and organization of neurons and the abnormal location of cell tissue in an abnormally symmetrical brain. (Newman 1995, 4)

In 1991, Dr. Livingstone, of Harvard University, explained that in reading, light strikes the photo receptors in the retina. Magno and parvo cells next process information in the midbrain, then it goes to the visual cortex for further processing. The magnocellular system does the fast processing of information for perceiving position, motion, shape, and low contrast. (Newman 1995, 8)

Livingstone discovered that dyslexics have an abnormality that slows down a major pathway so that two kinds of visual information are not received in the proper sequence. In the dyslexic brain, magno cell layout is more disorganized and the smaller than normal cells conduct impulses more slowly. Low contrast processing is slower. Thus, when visual stimuli is presented in rapid succession, only partial perception occurs, resulting in words that blur, fuse or seem to jump off the page. (Newman 1995, 8)

Livingstone also noted that the magno cells are inhibited by diffuse red in the spectrum of light. When blue colored lenses are worn, the blue filters out or absorbs enough of the red spectrum of light to allow the magno cells to function properly. Eighty percent of the subjects using the blue lenses reported relief from their strange visual processing symptoms. [An inexpensive alternative to lenses is to place blue overhead projector sheets over printed material.] (Newman 1995, 8-9)

Galaburda, in 1991, hypothesized that dyslexia could be an autoimmune disease, preventable before or soon after birth. Antibodies destroy a protein unique to magno cells. Magno cell performance is impaired in infancy. Abnormally processed sights and sounds begin to shape the infant's brain and cause it to be wired up differently. For survival, functions usually wired into the magnocellular system now bypass it and are rewired in other locales- possibly to areas capable, but less specific, with unreliable processing results, or perceptual inconsistencies. (Newman 1995, 9)

In the 1992 dyslexia literature of Dr. Robert Nash, at the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh, dyslexic ecoptia is described as brain cells in the wrong place. Dysplasia is explained as distortion of the cortical layers in an area of abnormally small, fused, excessively folded, incompletely laminated molecular layers. (Newman 1995, 5)

In support of multi-sensory (visual and auditory), kinesthetic-tactile (touch, motion, and muscle movement) teaching methods developed by Dr. Samuel T. Orton in the 1920's, brain research in 1992, finds that upon experience, the brain records information in those areas engaged by the senses. (Newman 1995, 9)

Also in 1992, Dr. Paula Tallal of Rutgers University, explained that it takes 4-40 milliseconds (ms) to say the /b/ or /d/ sounds. The language impaired need 80 ms to distinguish initial speech sounds. This is twice as long. An 8 ms pause is normally required to perceive a change in tones, but the language impaired, require a 300+ ms pause between tone changes for perception to occur. (Newman 1995, 9)

In 1993, Tallal proved that language-based learning disabled (LLD) children have severe difficulty perceiving, identifying, and sequencing rapidly presented nonverbal information of short duration. The receptive language outcomes and auditory psychophysical thresholds for frequency discrimination are modified by as little as 4 weeks of special experiences. The cortical area stimulated by the trained frequencies actually grows with training. A computer delivers a series of phonological and receptive language tasks using acoustically modified speech and audiotapes. (Miller et al. 1993, 1-3)

Four CD-ROM games were designed for improving LLI. The first training game, Phonic Identification, trains children to distinguish fast phonetic elements in consonant-vowel stimuli. Computer generated stimuli adaptively varies transition duration, transition intensity, and inter-phoneme presentation intervals. Game 2, Circus Sequence, adaptively trains "the LLI to identify the sequence order of progressively more rapidly sequenced and shorter duration acoustic stimuli." Game 3, Old Macdonald's Flying Farm, provides "a richer exposure to phonetic element sequences to increase the generalization of disambiguation of fast phonetic element sequences." Game 4, Phonic Match, provides a complete array of phonetic element sequences and contexts. The degree of speech duration and emphasis is systematically decreased, as performance meets predetermined criteria. (Jenkins et al. 1997)

Research results from Rutgers University, in 1996, demonstrate that deficient acoustic signal reception is the primary cause of specific language impairments. Intensive adaptive training significantly improves complex signal and speech reception and language comprehension abilities. (Miller et al. 1997)

In 1996, Merzenich and Jenkins at University of California, and Tallal and Miller at Rutgers University did a large field trial to assess the success of FastForWord™ with both Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) children with comorbid LLI. There is a high co-occurrence of ADD, ADHD and other language learning disabilities. (Miller et al. 1997)

On the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CLEF) tests, all students moved from the "moderate-mild deficit" range to "within normal limits," on each quotient. ADD, ADHD, and non-ADD LLI populations made equally significant gains. ADD and ADHD children taking medication for their disorders did not score better than their unmedicated peers did. Children with a co-occurring Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD), showed even greater improvements than their counterparts on the Token test, and the CLEF and TOLD language batteries. (Miller et al. 1997)

In 1997, the Scientific Learning Corporation, co-founded by Tallal, brought LLI Internet and CD-ROM -based training games to the professional speech-language arena. With 6-7 weeks in the FastForWord ™ training program, speech processing and language ability improved 1.5 years in 500 children studied between the ages of 4 and 12. A 90% success rate is achieved by acoustically altered speech sounds in a program that gradually weans children from inefficient language processing, and teaches a faster, more effective method. Rewarding entertaining animations dramatize and emphasize speech sounds in a way that allows the LLI to perceive subtle differences. Phonics, morphology and syntax are also taught. As new skills are mastered, the exercises increase in difficulty, driving a continual increase in the rate of speech processing, which leads to more normal speech perception. (SLC 1997)

Again in 1997, FastForWord™ proved dramatically successful with 1,000 children adopted by Americans from Russian orphanages. A lack of essential tactile stimulation ("nurturing") and a lack of being spoken to, resulted in severe developmental and language disabilities. Deprived of dynamic sensory experiences, these children perceive sound as muffled and fuzzy, rather than clear. (Amos 1997)

By restimulating early experience, the children step backward, acquiring the basic building blocks of language that they have missed. Once speechless and unresponsive, the children are now communicative and some can read. (Amos 1997)

Also in 1997, the research of Protopapas, Ahissar and Merzenich found acoustic processing deficits to be the cause of the pervasive lack of "phonological awareness," at the root of reading and spelling problems for dyslexics. This proves that programs like FastForWord™ can be specifically applied for the prevention and amelioration of some reading difficulties. (Protopapas et. al. 1997)

The Functional Brain Imaging Project studies brain activity and chemistry during language activities, comparing functioning, and the effects of remediation on the brains of normal and learning disabled subjects. The team uses a new technique for studying brain chemistry. It combines the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) equipment with special software that controls the pulse sequence. It is a MR spectroscopic imaging technique called Proton Echo-Planar Spectroscopic Imaging, or PEPSI. Preliminary findings point to the language activated brain chemicals, creatine and lactate, in specific regions. (Foorman, Francis, and Fletcher 1997)

Each dyslexic student must master recognition of printed symbols and corresponding sounds, spelling rules, and generalizations to the point of automaticity. This takes considerable time, drillwork, repetition, and encouragement. Orton-Gillingham procedures are effective with kindergarten through adult students. (Rome and Osman 1989, 6) It also takes one-on-one or small group instruction, in 45-60 minute segments, at regular intervals at least 5 days per week, and year-round. The instruction is diagnostic, prescriptive, sequential, and structured, consisting of 1/3 of the time spent on drillwork, 1/3 on spelling, and 1/3 on reading. (Rome and Osman 1989, 8)

How can technology be used to provide the dyslexic student with daily, one-on-one, individualized, diagnostic, prescriptive, sequential and structured instruction that is multi-sensory and kinesthetic-tactile in nature? This author advocates the use of the personal classroom computer for Orton-Gillingham (O-G) modeled delivery, hereafter referred to as the "Newman O-G Model."

Traditionally, the dyslexic O-G student learns each fact by tracing the information in a tray containing sand, while verbalizing about it in rhymes, when possible, and creatively visualizing about it, at the same time. 4 repetitions are required. The technological equivalent of the sand tray, is a textured touch pad that sends information to the computer for instant display on the screen. The student then feels the sensation and muscle motion of the input, hears while reciting it, and sees it on the screen, simultaneously.

In the Newman O-G Model, the computer presents the facts on the screen, and prompts the student through the exercises, with the touch pad or object-tracking deviceinstantly showing a graphically rendered comparison of the student's input with the desired input. The computer only counts accurate representations, and requires 4 successive accurate representations before allowing the student to proceed to the next exercise set. The computer also models the information to be verbalized by the student, and analyzes the student's voice output for content and accuracy, remodeling verbalizations when necessary, and providing regular voiced feedback and encouragement.

The dyslexic O-G student then progresses to inputting the same fact by skywriting. The dominant arm is rigidly extended, with hand fisted, and the opposite hand is placed upon the shoulder of the extended arm to place weight on the shoulder and perceive its movement. In large sweeping motions the fact is written in the air while simultaneously visualizing and verbalizing about it. In the Newman O-G Model, a motion-tracking device or weight is attached or worn on the wrist, and the feedback is graphically represented on the screen. In the same way, a motion-tracking device is attached to the finger while the fact is traced upon the arm, leg or tabletop while visualizing and verbalizing.

The computer keeps track of each student's progress and times the lessons. It equally divides the time between review of learned material, presentation of new material, spelling drills, and reading. During visual drills of letters, words, and rules, the computer presents information on the screen and waits to process the student's verbal response. During auditory drills, the computer presents information with voice and waits for and processes the student's responses entered on the textured touch pad. It records response time, graphs performance history against targeted performance, and moves forgotten facts from the "mastered" category and to the "material to be presented" category. The computer logically presents new material in an established, yet flexible sequence.

Finger spelling is modeled on the computer screen. The opposite of the student's dominant hand appears on the screen. The computer pronounces a word. In left-right progression, the fingers are assigned speech sounds, which appear within forward slashes, i.e. /b/+/a/+/t/ = "bat". One sound is labeled on each finger. An image of a writing hand appears to decode the sounds for spelling. As each speech sound is sounded slowly, the corresponding finger and speech sound is highlighted with a color. The writing hand writes the letter (grapheme) or letters representing the speech sound on an imbedded screen page in the same color, while verbalizing, i.e. "d-g-e spells /j/ after a short vowel."

After 4 examples, the student is prompted to begin the finger spelling drill. The computer pronounces a word. Color-coded sensors are attached to each finger of the student's non-writing hand. The student moves each finger while stating the speech sound assigned to it. The student's response appears in corresponding color, on the hand on the screen. When an error is made, the affected finger sensor vibrates, and the cooresponding finger on the screen blinks with the incorrectly labeled speech sound. The word is repeated again with a prompt for the student to repeat it, and then segment its speech sounds again.

After 3 unsuccessful attempts, the word is segmented and modeled by the computer, and a new word is presented. Forgotten spelling phonemes (speech sounds) are removed from the drill. Using the pen and tablet, the student writes dictated words, sentences and passages. Mistakes are first highlighted on the screen, allowing the student opportunity for corrections before help is given. The student's work is analyzed. The computer supplies encouragement, praise, and feedback on form and content both visually and verbally.

During the oral reading portion of the lesson, the computer assembles a passage only using mastered phonemes, graphemes, words and spellings. The student studies the passage on the screen and rehearses it until confidence and fluency is achieved. The computer prompts the student to read the passage orally. It analyzes the voice input, and underlines areas of the passage where reading errors occurred. The student continues to read the passage orally, until perfection is achieved, and is then rewarded visually and verbally.

For the blending drill, the computer constructs random syllables with virtual flash cards, according to the graphemes (letters) mastered and their rules of location. The student touches each group of graphemes while sounding them, then runs his finger in a sweeping motion, beneath the segments while blending the segments together. The computer models the exercise first, highlighting each card, and supplies appropriate help as needed throughout the drill.

An animated graphic of a stretching rubber band expands beneath the highlighted flash cards as the student sounds each card. When the student must blend the segments, the rubber band snaps back into shape, and all of the cards are highlighted simultaneously. The animation sets the pace of the blending drill. The drill is continued until it is completed successfully. Repeatedly forgotten graphemes are removed.

One of the most exciting computer roles, is that of tutee. (Merrill et al. 1986, 13) When students construct a presentation on the computer, they take on the role of teacher, assuming complete authority over the material. In the Newman O-G Model, the strategy of "teaching from memory" is enforced, and they consider real or imagined questions from their audience. This exercise lets the student experience the information from a new vantage point- one of confidence and command. Once the lesson is satisfactory, the student presents it 4 times to different audiences (real or imagined).

For the dyslexic with handwriting difficulties, O-G penmanship lessons can also be administered with the Newman O-G Model. Handwriting input is made on a graphics tablet with an attached pen. The modeled penmanship is displayed on the screen, and is narrated and animated to show direction and formation details. The program provides visual and verbal instruction and feedback, tracks performance, and dictates presentation and review based on current student performance.

The tablet can be modified with overlays, which contain visual cues and lines of varying colors, styles, and sizes. Student input immediately appears on the screen. The computer compares it to the model, analyzes the deviations, and provides appropriate verbal and visual feedback, and further instruction. The student progresses from the exercises with the textured touch pad, to skywriting, then body or tabletop writing, as described previously. Lastly, the student teaches the penmanship lesson back to the teacher, computer, or an audience.

Research at the Michigan Dyslexia Institute, shows average reading-level increases of 2.3 years with every 72 hours of specialized O-G instruction. (Werner 1989, 37) That translates into 72 of the typical 180 school days in one-hour lessons with the computer. In a school year, one classroom computer could provide 1,080 hours of individualized instruction. With 28 students in the classroom, each student could receive 38.5 hours of individualized instruction, or the 6 specifically learning disabled students could each receive their needed 1 hour of individualized instruction per day, with no additional cost for equipment or manpower.

The Newman O-G Model is used in the same way to teach facts, formulas, definitions, and rules to dyslexic and dyscalculic math students.

To summarize, the model consists of modified Orton-Gillingham based instruction, which is computer driven. It follows the recommended O-G instructional delivery sequences, and employees progressive, diagnostic, and prescriptive multi-sensory, kinesthetic-tactile exercise sets. Each lesson employs the following sequence and methods: visual drill; auditory drill; kinesthetic drill; blending drill; review of prerequisite material; introduction of new material; 4 successful textured touch pad exercises; 4 successful skywriting exercises, 4 successful body or tabletop tracing exercises; finger spelling instruction and drill; and rehearsed oral reading. Lastly, the student assumes the role of master teacher of the subject matter, using the computer as an instructional tool.

Ten percent of all children do not naturally acquire fundamental language skills during the first few years of life. Difficulty distinguishing between speech sounds results in poor language comprehension and speech production problems. Even with the phonics method, LLI children cannot distinguish phonemic elements, in the normal speed of speech, reliably enough to form phoneme/grapheme associations. (SLC 1997b)

This is because Language-Learning Disabled (LLD) children require an abnormal, unnatural tone inter-stimulus-level (ISL). The pattern in normal children looks like: 75 ms tone- 8ms ISL- 75 ms tone. But for the LLI to perceive the phonetic bits of speech, the pattern would unnaturally look like this: 75 ms tone- 350 ms ISL- 75 ms tone. (Tallal et al. 1996)

Discrimination of speech syllables occurs within the first 1-10 ms range. When the ISL of syllables are stretched out to twice the norm, LLD children identify the syllables. Children's own recorded speech was acoustically modified, and then used in phonological and receptive language training exercises consisting of 3 hours a day, 5 days a week, for 6 weeks. Another group received the same training, but with natural speech. Both groups improved in speech discrimination and receptive language abilities, but the acoustically modified speech group had significantly greater gains. Just 4 weeks into the study, the LLD group, using computer-synthesized speech, showed dramatic 1.5 year gains in receptive speech and language abilities. (Tallal et al. 1996)

FastForWord™ is the first and only program to train the LLI brain to successfully process the fast phonetic elements of speech. (SLC 1997b) Remediated children are progressively able to recognize shorter-duration consonants, (Jenkins et al. 1997) and the many phonetic contrasts embedded in the 10 ms range. (Nagarajan et al. 1997)

Three computer algorithms achieve this. The Time-Scale Modification Algorithm performs speech at a speed that is 10-25 X real-time. The Filterbank Emphasis Algorithm performs speech at 40-50 X normal. The Overlap-Add Emphasis Algorithm performs speech at 2-3 X the natural rate. The emphasis algorithms differentially amplify the faster speech elements, those occurring in the 2-20Hz range. Sharply modulated speech signals are more powerful for complex learning, thus, the resulting temporally prolonged and differentially amplified speech stimuli produce dramatically improved perceptual speech-language abilities. (Nagarajan et al. 1997)

Seven million American children, with normal hearing and intelligence, develop language learning problems with reading, writing, speech, and spelling. Their brains require too much time to distinguish individual speech sounds, so while they hear the sounds, the appropriate connections are not made in the brain. (Brownlee and Watson 1997) Defective temporal processing across the forebrain causes this. (Nagarajan et al. 1997) By training in daily sessions of 1-3 hours, the brain recruits neighboring neurons to help perform speech sound distinction tasks. Intense repetition strengthens the neural connections involved in the fast processing of sounds. (Walton 1998)

FastForWord™ is an integrated software-training program that continuously adapts to current student competency. Pre-testing, continual testing, and post-testing are done, and the student's progress is plotted. It is appropriate for students of all ages and learning styles. (SLC 1997b)

To participate in the program, a certified speech-language professional must undergo training and then become a certified provider. (SLC 1997b) This costs $2,000. and the cost per student is $850. This is certainly less expensive than hiring a private tutor for 1-3 years. (Walton 1998)

A Power PC or Mac OS 7.5.5 or a 166Mhz MMX Pentium processor, running Windows 95, is required. A minimum 16 MB of RAM, a 4X speed CD-ROM, 15 MB of Hard Drive space, a 16-bit sound card, and stereo headphones are also needed. At least a 28.8 KBPS Internet connection through an Internet Service Provider, other than AOL or CompuServe, is required. (SLC 1997a)

Scientific Learning Corporation was founded in 1996 by Drs. Tallal, Merzenich, Jenkins, and Miller. SLC has a team of 30 professionals with expertise in linguistics, neuroscience, psychology, art and animation, advanced computer technology, business, and marketing. While initial FastForWord™ focus has been on 4-12 year-olds, applications will be developed to serve LLI teenagers and adults. (SLC 1997b)

Scientific Learning Corporation now offers 7 researched games. Circus Sequence builds processing rates and temporal sequencing skills. Phoneme Identification teaches children to identify specific phonemes. Old Macdonald's Flying Farm teaches identification of phonemic sound changes. Phonic Match "reinforces memory and reasoning skills using simple word structures that differ by a single phoneme." Phonic Words teaches phoneme and word recognition for complex words differing by a single phoneme. Block Commander teaches syntax and listening comprehension through the use of simple sentence structures. Language Comprehension Builder introduces increasingly complex sentences, developing higher-level language skills that include morphology, syntax and grammar. (Tallal et al. 1997)

In conclusion, FastForWord™ provides phonology and receptive language training on adaptive multimedia, auditory-perceptual, and language learning tasks. One month of training results in dramatic reductions in the duration of the tone required and the inter-stimulus-interval required by the LLI for accurate perception, processing and response to rapidly presented acoustic information. (Miller, et al. 1993) Thus, the processing deficits of the LLI are "improved by acoustically modifying speech using a computer algorithm that expands and enhances the most rapidly successive components of speech, coupled with adaptive training." (Tallal et al. 1997)

As of March 1996, only 23.6% of Americans, over the age of 25, had 4 or more years of college, but 82% had completed high-school. Prospects for successful independent living are dismal for the 18.3% or 30,798,900 individuals who lack even a high school education, (NCES 1997, 3) and the over 10 million children between 14 and 17 who do not even attend school. (NCES 1997, 68) Average annual wages even for those who finish high school are below the poverty level.

Of the 195,015,000 children enrolled in the 1995-1996 school year, only 3,601,000 of the estimated 29,252,250 dyslexic children, were identified and served by school disability programs. (NCES 1997, 13, 65) That means close to 26 million children went without needed help. In 1996, less than 2% of the nation's secondary teachers spent most of their teaching hours on special education. (NCES 1997, 80)

Exit statistics show that even when children are assisted by SLD and Speech-Language programs, only 32.5% and 18.3%, respectively, actually graduate with diplomas. Of SLDs, 4.6% graduate with certificates, and of S-LIs, 2.5% graduate with certificates. Of both groups averaged, about .5% leave school when they reach maximum age. (NCES 1997, 113) That means that 60% of identified and assisted LLI children drop out. What of the unidentified, unassisted children who drop out? How many of them were among the 30% of America's 3,762,000 17-year-olds that did not graduate from high school in 1997? (NCES 1997, 108)

Clearly, attempts are being made at "special education." Laws have been contrived to force the system to address the learning challenges of SLD children. The legal impetus and knowledge concerning SLDs are still trickling down. But the nation's blatant failure in SLD outcomes is abominable.

Reading research with 1^st and 2^nd graders receiving Title 1 services with 4 different remedial methods, including embedded phonics, had startling findings. After one school year of intervention, only the approach incorporating direct phonics instruction brought the reading proficiency of these children to national norms. Most children tutored with the two context-based approaches showed no gains. "Researchers have found that most cases of reading disabilities can be prevented with early intervention, particularly when children received daily one-to-one tutoring from a knowledgeable tutor." (Foorman, Francis, and Fletcher 1997)

This author recommends swift action to reverse the depressing outlook for both identified, serviced, and unidentified SLD children. This can be done utilizing the staff, equipment, and infrastructure already in place. With a classroom computer, or school media lab, SLD students can receive the daily, individualized, intensive training they require to achieve academic success and life long independence.

Two scientifically based, and extensively researched and field tested programs are the Orton-Gillingham Method of multi-sensory (MS), kinesthetic-tactile (KT) instruction (upon which the Newman O-G Model is based), and the FastForWord™ system of linguistic training using acoustically modified speech to address and improve the auditory processing deficits of the LLI population.

The Orton-Gillingham method has an outstanding 62-year track record of success. Even severe dyslexics, after O-G training, have gone on to be doctors, lawyers, professors, scientists, engineers, and architects. In a follow-up study of 20 O-G remediated dyslexic boys, M.B. Rawson found that all, except one, had gone on to college. The 18 who earned college degrees also earned a total of 32 postgraduate degrees: 2 becoming physicians, 2 college professors, 2 research scientists, 3 teachers, 1 lawyer, 1 foreman, 1 actor, 1 technician, 1 school principal, 3 business owners, and 3 business executives. (Weger 1989, 63)

The author has been tutoring dyslexic children for the past 5 years using the O-G method. In 90% of all cases, students go from school failure to achieving A's and B's before exiting the program. All students experience remarkable success with reading, writing, and spelling abilities and come to enjoy the MS-KT exercises, and the command of the subject matter that results.

A 90%-100% success rate has also been reported with the FastForWord™ training program. It proves to be a practical way to reach the previously unreachable LLI population. By using computer algorithms to alter natural speech, LLIs can now perceive, previously undetectable speech elements, and can be progressively trained to perceive these same speech elements, without the aid of synthesized speech, thus, facilitating future linguistic success in natural environments.

The computer can also be used to acquire job skills, solve real problems, and participate in the "grown-up" world. Over 1,000 communities had School-to-Work Opportunities Act partnerships in September 1997. Businesses offered over 119,000 work-based learning opportunities to secondary school students. (Winters 1997) Students who participate in community-based activities have higher grades, more positive attitudes toward school, and fewer absences than nonparticipants do. (OERI Bulletin fall/winter 1996)

Best of all, is the fact that the classroom computer can be used as a specialized multi-subject teacher, alleviating the problem of staff shortages. Just one computer can provide each of the estimated 6 dyslexic students with their needed 1 hour of intensive daily language instruction. If additional multi-media computers are used, the computer can be used for the integrated liberal studies recommended for all students.

When the Internet is used for research and communication, real-world experiences and friendships are gained as students participate in intra- and international projects with experts and peers around the world. The most exciting thing about using the computer to learn and learning to use the computer, is the new potential for children to make and participate in history, instead of just observing or learning about it.

Doing so, they acquire the experience, confidence, and faculty to keep abreast of, and help create, transformations in modern culture. Empowered by programming the computer and using it to present information, students directly gain tangible skills for employment in, communication with, and understanding of their rapidly changing technical world.

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